Cadmium, zinc, copper, arsenic, selenium and mercury in seabirds from the Barents Sea: Levels, inter-specific and geographical differences - Savinov, Vladimir M.; Gabrielsen, Geir W.; Savinova, Tatiana N. (Science of the Total Environment, 2003)
Trace elements Cd, Zn, Cu, As, Se and Hg were analysed in muscle and liver of Brunnich's guillemot, Common guillemot, Puffin, Black guillemot, Little auk, Razorbill, Common eider, King eider, Glaucous gull, Herring gull, Black-legged kittiwake, Northern fulmar and Arctic tern collected in 1991-1992 at the main breeding colonies in the Barents Sea. The highest levels of the most toxic elements Cd and Hg were found in birds nesting north of Spitsbergen. Extremely high levels of As were detected in tissues of all seabird species collected at colonies in Chernaya Guba (Novaya Zemlya), where nuclear tests were carried out in the 1960s. In general, levels of all of the trace elements in the Barents Sea seabirds were similar or lower in comparison with those reported for the same seabird species from the other Arctic areas. Data on metallothionein concentrations in different seabird species need to be collected in order to understand the mechanism of bioaccumulation and possible toxic effects of trace elements in Arctic seabirds.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Common Eider; Contaminants; Somateria mollissima; King Eider; Somateria spectabilis

Chlorinated hydrocarbons in seabirds from the Barents Sea area - Savinova, T. N.; Polder, A.; Gabrielsen, G. W.; Skaare, J. U. (Science of the Total Environment, 1995)
Keywords: Common Eider; Contaminants; Somateria mollissima

Geographic and temporal patterns of variation in total mercury concentrations in blood of harlequin ducks and blue mussels from Alaska - Savoy, L.; Flint, P.; Zwiefelhofer, D.; Brant, H.; Perkins, C.; Taylor, R.; Lane, O.; Hall, J.; Evers, D.; Schamber, J. (MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN, 2017)
We compared total mercury (Hg) concentrations in whole blood of harlequin ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus) sampled within and among two geographically distinct locations and across three years in southwest Alaska. Blue mussels were collected to assess correlation between Hg concentrations in locally available forage and birds. Mercury concentrations in harlequin duck blood were significantly higher at Unalaska Island (0.31 +/- 0.19 mean +/- SD, mu g/g blood) than Kodiak Island (0.04 +/- 0.02 mean +/- SD, mu g/g blood). We found no evidence for annual variation in blood Hg concentration between years at Unalaska Island. However, blood Hg concentration did vary among specific sampling locations (i.e., bays) at Unalaska Island. Findings from this study demonstrate harlequin ducks are exposed to environmental sources of Hg, and whole blood Hg concentrations are associated with their local food source. (C) 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 8 Total Times Cited: 8 Cited Reference Count: 58
Keywords: Harlequin duck; Histrionicus histrionicus; COMMON EIDERS; EIDERS SOMATERIA-MOLLISSIMA; SEA DUCKS; TRACE-ELEMENTS; Mercury; Alaska; MYTILUS-EDULIS; Blue mussel; ALEUTIAN CHAIN; BERGEN HARBOR AREA; HOODED MERGANSER EGGS; NORTHEASTERN NORTH-AMERICA; PUFFIN FRATERCULA-CIRRHATA

Ecological Aspects of Common Goldeneyes Bucephala-Clangula Wintering on the Upper Mississippi River USA - Sayler, R. D.; Afton, A. D. (Ornis Scandinavica, 1981)
Roosting flight characteristics of common goldeneyes, B. clangula, were correlated with ambient temperature, wind direction, feeding area location and date. More birds remained near the communal roost during days when colder temperatures prevailed and early in winter when feeding was common by a brewery discharge outlet. Roosting populations declined under colder daily temperatures but increased during winter. Roosting sites were vacated temporarily by most birds in periods of extremely cold temperatures (< -25.degree. C). Daytime sex ratio counts were adult male biased throughout winter, indicating males returned to the roost site from feeding areas earlier in the day than did females. Adult males occasionally defended small individual foraging sites from intruding conspecifics of both sexes. Available data indicate that sexual segregation within habitats and between wintering areas is influenced by climatic effects interacting with several ecological factors: body size-weight-metabolic relationships, intersexual competion for food and sexual selection pressures.
Keywords: Behavior; Nonbreeding Seasons; Bucephala clangula; Common Goldeneye; Habitat

Reproductive Ecology and Habitat Use of Pacific Black Scoters (Melanitta nigra americana) Nesting on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, Alaska - Schamber, J. L.; Broerman, F. J.; Flint, P. L. (WATERBIRDS, 2010)
Abundance indices of Black Scoters (Melanitta nigra americana) breeding in Alaska indicate a long-term population decline without obvious cause(s). However, few life history data are available for the species in North America. In 2001-2004, information was collected on nesting habitat and reproductive parameters (i.e. components of productivity) from a population of Black Scoters nesting on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, Alaska. A total of 157 nests were found over four years. Primarily, nests were among dense vegetation in shrub edge habitat, predominantly dwarf birch ( Betula glandulosa) and Alaska spiraea (Spiraea beauverdiana), an average of 58 in from water. Females initiated nests from 11 June and 17 July across years. Clutch size averaged 7.5 eggs and did not vary annually. Nest success was highly variable among years and ranged from 0.01 to 0.37. Duckling survival to 30 days old varied among years, and ranged from 0.09-0.35. Nest success was poor in three of four years, likely due to predation by Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes). Black Scoters appear to have low but variable productivity, consistent with life-history Patterns of other sea duck species. Information gained will direct future demographic research on Black Scoters, and highlights knowledge gaps impeding management strategies needed for population recovery. Received 10 June 2009, accepted 17 December 2009.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 7 Total Times Cited: 7 Cited Reference Count: 62
Keywords: habitat selection; Black Scoter; Melanitta nigra; SURVIVAL; POPULATION-DYNAMICS; sea duck; WHITE-WINGED SCOTERS; Alaska; SPECTACLED EIDERS; MALLARD DUCKLINGS; initiation date; nest success; Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta; duckling survival; FUSCA-DEGLANDI; MARKED ANIMALS; NORTH-DAKOTA; PREDATOR REMOVAL; REDBERRY LAKE

Population Dynamics of Long-tailed Ducks Breeding on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, Alaska - Schamber, Jason L.; Flint, Paul L.; Grand, J. Barry; Wilson, Heather M.; Morse, Julie A. (Arctic, 2009)
Population estimates for long-tailed ducks in North America have declined by nearly 50% over the past 30 years. Life history and population dynamics of this species are difficult to ascertain, because the birds nest at low densities across a broad range of habitat types. Between 1991 and 2004, we collected information on productivity and survival of long-tailed ducks at three locations on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta. Clutch size averaged 7.1 eggs, and nesting success averaged 30%. Duckling survival to 30 days old averaged 10% but was highly variable among years, ranging from 0% to 25%. Apparent annual survival of adult females based on mark-recapture of nesting females was estimated at 74%. We combined these estimates of survival and productivity into a matrix-based population model, which predicted an annual population decline of 19%. Elasticities indicated that population growth rate (lambda) was most sensitive to changes in adult female survival. Further, the relatively high sensitivity (lambda) to duckling survival suggests that low duckling survival may be a bottleneck to productivity in some years. These data represent the first attempt to synthesize a population model for this species. Although our analyses were hampered by the small sample sizes inherent in studying a dispersed nesting species, our model provides a basis for management actions and can be enhanced as additional data become available.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Clangula hyemalis; Long-tailed Duck; Productivity; Population Dynamics; Population Model; Survival; SDJV funded

Breeding of the Common Eider Somateria-Mollissima on the Beaufort Sea Coast of Alaska USA - Schamel, D. (Condor, 1977)
Common eiders breeding along the coast of the Beaufort Sea, Alaska [USA], have adapted well to the problems of a brief nesting period and predators. By arriving already paired at the time of break-up, they minimize the pre-laying period. These eiders appear to avoid fox predation by nesting almost exclusively on offshore islands and postponing nesting attempts until the islands are surrounded by open water. Only the earliest nesting birds maintain a pair bond through the 1st few days of incubation. This allows for rapid renesting in the event of predation. Females choose nest sites that offer camoflage, wind protection and sufficient elevation to avoid flooding. Males are brightly colored, but staying away from nests help to keep them hidden. Although eiders did not nest close together, they seemed to cluster just inside the territorial boundaries of glaucous gulls. These nests were more successful than those elsewhere in the colony studied.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Productivity; Habitat

Bird Use of a Beaufort Sea Barrier Island in Summer - Schamel, D. (Canadian Field-Naturalist, 1978)
The number and distribution of birds near a barrier island west of Prudhoe Bay, Alaska [USA] were recorded during the phenologically late summer of 1972. During eastward (spring) migration, most birds were restricted to a small area of open water in the nearby river delta. Although numerous eiders (Somateria sp.) fed and rested in the island area during spring migration, few did so in late summer, when oldsquaws (Clangula hyemalis) and red phalaropes (Phalaropus fulicarius) congregated near the island. [Additional birds in the area were Gavia adamsii, G. arctica, G. stellata, Somateria mollissima var. nigra, S. spectabilis, Larus hyperboreus and Sterna paradisaea. Only 4 plant species were found: Honckenya peploides, Mertensia maritima, Elymus arenarius mollis and Puccinellia phryganodes.].
Keywords: Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Nonbreeding Seasons; Molt; Clangula hyemalis; Long-tailed Duck

The sea eagle and its food - Scheel, Henning (Gron Land, 1964)
The se eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) is still fairly common along Greenland's west coast. It does not take newborn lambs but feeds mostly on salmon during the summer. When lakes and streams freeze it takes eider ducks and other sea birds. It captures diving birds as they come to the surface and does not take birds in flight. || ABSTRACT AUTHORS: V. Flyger
Keywords: Common Eider; Nonbreeding Seasons; Somateria mollissima; Trophic Interactions

Roosting waterbirds at the Osterems, German Wadden Sea: seasonal and spatial trends studied by aerial and ground surveys - Scheiffarth, Gregor; Becker, Peter H. (Senckenbergiana Maritima, 2008)
Waterbirds migrating through and wintering in the Wadden Sea depend on undisturbed roost sites close to their feeding areas. Birds at these remote places are, however, often not counted within standard monitoring programmes. As in the Osterems a new remote sandbank island, the Kachelotplate, is emerging, we initiated a Pilot Study based on aerial counts to evaluate the importance of this island as roost site for waterbirds in the context of the Surrounding islands. To check for the representativeness of the aerial Counts, we compared numbers (i) on one occasion with a synchronous ground survey, and (ii) all aerial Counts with the long-term average for chose areas regularly covered by ground Counts. Numbers of birds in flocks counted during synchronous aerial and ground counts were in good agreement. Nevertheless, birds in structured areas and small waders were difficult to count from the air. In general, a calibration of aerial Counts and long-term experience is necessary to obtain realistic results by Counting waterbirds from an aeroplane. Waterbirds in the Osterems showed the typical seasonal phenology for the East-Frisian Wadden Sea. Given the size of the study area, bird numbers were relatively high. Besides the Kachelotplate, which was important for the Common Eider and gulls for roosting, another remote island, Lutje Horn, was of paramount importance as roost site, in particular for the Eurasian Oystercatcher, Eurasian Curlew, and in spring for terns. A clear distinction could be made between outer, open islands like the Kachelotplate, which were used by birds feeding on pelagic food Sources, and sheltered areas, used by benthic foragers, Supporting the idea that birds try to reduce travelling costs between feeding and roosting areas. Furthermore, the Study underlined the importance of remote, undisturbed roosting areas for waterbirds in the Wadden Sea.
Keywords: Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Sea Ducks - General; Nonbreeding Seasons

Crushing shells in a stomach: more than simple mechanics - Scheiffarth, G.; Frank, D.; Bradter, U.; Thoden, B. (Journal of Ornithology, 2006)
Keywords: Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Physiology

Synchronous Diving by Surf Scoter Melanitta-Perspicillata Flocks - Schenkeveld, L. E.; Ydenberg, R. C. (Canadian Journal of Zoology, 1985)
We studied the diving and surfacing synchrony of foraging flocks of wintering surf scoters (Melanitta perspicillata). Our data support the hypothesis that synchronous diving is an adaptation that reduces kleptoparasitism by glaucous-winged gulls (Larus glaucescens), which frequently attend foraging flocks. We developed a statistical method for measuring and comparing synchrony between flocks, and applied it to videotape records of 30 flocks. The results show that diving and surfacing are highly synchronous, and that there is a large variation between flocks in the degree of synchrony exhibited. The most pronounced effect is for surfacing synchrony to be higher in the presence of gulls. This seems to arise because individual birds curtail their dives so that less synchrony is lost between diving and surfacing during a group dive. This curtailment of dive length may lead to a reduction in the average size of prey captured.
Keywords: Behavior; Nonbreeding Seasons; Melanitta perspicillata; Surf Scoter

Mercury and selenium accumulation in common loons (Gavia immer) and common mergansers (Mergus merganser) from eastern Canada - Scheuhammer, Anton M.; Wong, Allan H. K.; Bond, Della (Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 1998)
Liver, kidney, and breast muscle tissue from common loons (Gavia immer) and common mergansers (Mergus merganser) from eastern Canada were analyzed for total Hg, organic Hg, and Se concentrations. In both species, Hg and Se concentrations were generally highest in liver, followed by kidney, then breast muscle. As total Hg concentrations increased in liver and kidney tissues, the fraction that was methylmercury (MeHg) decreased. Livers and kidneys with the highest total Hg concentrations (>100 mug/g dry weight) had only 5 to 7% of the total as MeHg. Concentrations of MeHg were < 10 mug/g (dry weight) regardless of the total Hg concentration in liver and kidney. In contrast, the proportion of MeHg in breast muscle remained high (80-100%) in both loons and mergansers regardless of total Hg concentration, which ranged from 0.7 to 35 mug/g (dry weight). Strong positive correlations were observed between total Hg and Se concentrations, but not between MeHg and Se, in kidney and liver tissues for both loons and mergansers. Mercury concentrations were significantly higher (analysis of variance, p < 0.0001) in all three tissues of loons found in an emaciated condition compared with apparently healthy loons. Non-emaciated loons had Hg concentrations comparable to those of healthy mergansers, and concentrations were lower than those associated with Hg toxicity in birds. The elevated Hg concentrations in emaciated loons may have contributed to their impaired conditions; alternatively, the wasting of their muscle and other tissues may have caused apparent tissue Hg concentrations to increase. In any case, total Hg concentrations in liver and/or kidney tissue are insufficient criteria for making toxicologically relevant judgments of possible Hg toxicity. Because of the varying degrees of apparent Hg demethylation in liver, kidney, and other tissues and the association of the resulting inorganic Hg with Se in an apparently stable, toxicologically inert complex, estimates of organic Hg and Se concentrations, in addition to total Hg, in these organs are recommended.
Keywords: Contaminants; Common merganser; Mergus merganser

Studies on the helminth fauna of Alaska. XVIII. Cestode parasites in young Anseriformes on the Yukon delta nesting grounds - Schiller, Everett L. (Trans Amer Microsc Soc, 1954)
In the summer of 1952, 32 emperor geese, 27 crackling geese, 13 spectacled eider, and 2 pintail ducks, were collected on the Yukon delta, Aladka, and examined for helminth parasites. All birds but 2 were downy young. Emperor geese were infected with Hymenolepis lanceolata, H. barrowensis and H. nyrocae. Cackling geese were infected with Hymenolepis lanceolata, H. barrowensis, H. nyrocae, and H. setigera. Eleven spectacled eider were infected with Hymenolepis sacciperum, H. yukonensis, Diorchis flavescens. and Schistocephalus solidus. The pintail ducks were infected with Hymenolepis stolli. A cestode from the spectacled eider, Hymenolepis yukonensis. is descr. as new, and is differentiated from anseriform cestodes of the genus Hymenolepis on the basis of rostellar hook size and shape, length of strobila, size of scolex, and size and extent of cirrus sac. Additional notes on the morphology of H. barrowensis. are presented, and the emperor goose and cackling goose are listed as new host spp. for this cestode. A description of the scolex of Hymenolepis stolli is given for the 1st time. It was concluded that Hymenolepis defilae is synonymous with H. stolli. Evidence is presented that helminth infections are acquired on the nesting grounds by the young birds soon after hatching. Conditions allowing helminth infection appeared very favorable. It was observed that widespread cestode infections occur on nesting grounds with little host mortality. || ABSTRACT AUTHORS: R. V. Rausch
Keywords: Breeding Season; Somateria fischeri; Spectacled Eider; Parasites

Studies on the helminth fauna of Alaska. XXIII. Some cestode parasites of eider ducks - Schiller, Everett L. (Jour Parasitol, 1955)
Helminth parasites of 4 spp. of eider ducks, 2 of which are used in great numbers by Alaskan Eskimo for food, are considered. Two cestodes are described as new: Haploparaxis polystictae (From Steller's eider, Polysticta stelleri), and Hymenolepis arctica (type host, king eider, Somateria spectabilis). Two spp. of cestodes are redescribed: Hymenolepis fallax (Krabbe, 1869), from Pacific eider (Somateria mollissima v-nigra) and king eider; and Hvmenolepis sibirica (v. Linstow, 1905), from Steller's eider. Of 10 Steller's eider ducks collected, 7 harbored specimens of Hymenolepis sibirica and Haploparaxis polystictae. Of 36 examined, 21 Pacific eider were found to contain the following cestodes: Lateriporus teres, Hvmenolepis microsoma, Hymenolepis fallax, Hvmenolepis fausti, Fimbriarioides intermedia, Hymenolepis tenuirostris, and H. arctica. Of 32 king eider ducks, 22 were infected with L. teres, F. intermedia, H. fallax, H. microsoma, and H. arctica. Thirteen of 15 spectacled eider (Arctonetta fischeri) were infected with H. arctica, L. teres, Hvmenolepis sacciperum, Hvmenolepis yukonensis, Diorchis flavescens, and Schisto-cephalus solidus. The foregoing are listed in order of frequency of occurrence. It is concluded that Lateriporus geographicus Cooper, 1921, is conspecific with Lateriporus teres (Krabbe, 1869), and the former is therefore placed in synonymy with L. teres. || ABSTRACT AUTHORS: R. V. Rausch
Keywords: Somateria fischeri; Spectacled Eider; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; King Eider; Somateria spectabilis; Parasites; Polysticta stelleri; Steller's eider

Polymorphus swartzi sp. n., and other Acanthocephala of Alaskan ducks - Schmidt, Gerald D. (J Parasitol, 1965)
Polymorphus swartzi sp. n. is described from Barrow's goldeneye (Bucephala islanctica) from Alaska. It has greatest morphological similarity with P. strumosoides, Lundstrom, 1942, differing from it in body shape, proboscis armature, distribution of trunk spines, shape of lemnisci, and size of eggs. The presence of P. minutus (Goeze, 1742) Luhe, 1911 and P. marilis Van Cleave, 1939 in Alaskan ducks is also discussed. A key to the species in Polymorphus is included. || ABSTRACT AUTHORS: Authors
Keywords: Parasites; Barrow's Goldeneye; Bucephala islandica

Incubation behaviors and patterns of nest attendance in common goldeneyes in interior Alaska - Schmidt, Joshua H.; Taylor, Eric J.; Rexstad, Eric A. (Condor, 2005)
We hypothesized that nest attendance characteristics in Common Goldeneyes (Bucephala clangula) at the northern limit of their range differ from those of more southern populations. In 2002 and 2003, we used artificial eggs containing temperature-sensing data loggers to obtain nest attendance data from 20 incubating females over 515 days. On average (+/-SE), each female spent 79.8 +/- 0.3% of the day on the nest, and took 2.9 +/- 0.1 recesses per day, each averaging 100.7 +/- 1.5 minutes. These recess characteristics were comparable to those reported for other Common Goldeneye populations. Most recesses (88%) occurred between 09:00 and 22:00 Alaskan Daylight Time although recesses were initiated at all times of day. Female incubation behavior does not appear to be strongly influenced by coarse-level environmental variables or the female-specific variables that we measured, but could be related to a complex assortment of fine-scale environmental or endogenous factors.
Keywords: Behavior; Breeding Season; Bucephala clangula; Common Goldeneye

Survival of common goldeneye ducklings in interior Alaska - Schmidt, Joshua H.; Taylor, Eric J.; Rexstad, Eric A. (Journal of Wildlife Management, 2006)
Duckling survival is an important component of waterfowl population dynamics, and we provide the first-known estimates of duckling survival for common goldeneyes (Bucephala clangula) at the northern limit of their range in Interior Alaska. We color-marked common goldeneye ducklings from 91 broods and radio-marked a subset of the females (n = 39) from a nest-box population in the boreal forest during the summers of 2002 and 2003. We monitored 46 broods in 2002 and 2003 combined and estimated daily survival rates (DSR) and survival to 30 days of age using program MARK. We modeled DSR in relation to year, linear trend across season, duckling age, female age, female body condition, initial brood size, and daily precipitation. Model-averaged duckling survival estimates from the mean yearly hatch date to 30 days of age were 0.64 (95% Cl, 0.37-0.90) and 0.67 (95% Cl, 0.54-0.80) for 2002 and 2003, respectively. Our best-approximating model indicated that survival differed by year and increased in a linear manner over the course of the 2002 season. Precipitation had a consistent negative effect on duckling survival in both years across models, whereas duckling age did not explain much of the variation in daily survival rates. In light of the decline of many populations of sea ducks, we suggest that more effort should be expended to obtain estimates of other population parameters for common goldeneyes, and monitoring programs should attempt to estimate populations more precisely to identify population-level changes in the future.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Bucephala clangula; Common Goldeneye; Survival; SDJV funded

A General Bayesian Hierarchical Model for Estimating Survival of Nests and Young - Schmidt, Joshua H.; Walker, Johann A.; Lindberg, Mark S.; Johnson, Devin S.; Stephens, Scott E. (Auk, 2010)
Models for estimating survival probability of nests and young have changed dramatically since the development of the Mayfield method. Improvements in software and a steady increase in computing power have allowed more complexity and realism in these models, allowing researchers to provide better estimates of survival and to relate survival rates to relevant covariates. However, many current analysis methods utilize fixed-effects models with the implicit assumption that the covariates explain all of the variation in the data, other than random variation within a specified family of distributions. This is generally a strong assumption, and, in the presence of heterogeneity and lack of independence, these estimates have been shown to be negatively biased. Others have begun to explore random-effects models for these situations, but a readily applicable Bayesian approach has been lacking. We present a general Bayesian modeling framework appropriate for survival of both nests and young that simultaneously allows for the inclusion of individual covariates and random effects and provides a measure of goodness-of-fit. We used previously published data on survival of Common Goldeneye (Bucephala clangula) ducklings in interior Alaska and on nest survival in three species of prairie-nesting clucks that nested in the Missouri Coteau region of North Dakota to demonstrate this approach. The inclusion of a brood-level random effect in the Common Goldeneye example increased point estimates and credible interval [CI] coverage from 0.62 (95% Cl: 0.49-0.73) and 0.66 (95% CI: 0.58-0.74) for 2002 and 2003, respectively, to 0.69 (95% CI: 0.42-0.88) and 0.74 (95% CI: 0.57-0.88) for 2002 and 2003, respectively. Received 4 January 2009, accepted 10 September 2009.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Bucephala clangula; Common Goldeneye; Survival; Techniques

On the potential role ofMergus merganseras transport hosts forTetracapsuloides bryosalmonae - Schmidt-Posthaus, H.; Mattmann, P.; Hirschi, R.; Schneider, E. (TRANSBOUNDARY AND EMERGING DISEASES, 2020)
Transmission paths in the distribution of proliferative kidney disease (PKD) of salmonids are still largely unknown. In this study, the role of goosander (Mergus merganser) as possible transport host forTetracapsuloides bryosalmonaethrough faeces was examined. Goosander fledglings were fed exclusively with diseased brown trout (Salmo trutta fario). In all trout used for feeding, intratubular sporogonic stage of the parasite was confirmed histologically. Between one to 10 hours post-feeding, the goosander faeces were sampled and tested forT. bryosalmonaeDNA. In qPCR, only DNA fragments were found, and in conventional PCR, no amplification was confirmed. Therefore, we hypothesize that the role of goosander as transport hosts forT. bryosalmonaevia their faeces can be neglected.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 1 Total Times Cited: 1 Cited Reference Count: 37
Keywords: Mergus merganser; DNA; TEMPERATURE; TRANSMISSION; PATHOLOGY; RAINBOW-TROUT; brown trout; CAUSATIVE AGENT; faeces; MALACOSPOREA; PKD; PROLIFERATIVE KIDNEY-DISEASE; Tetracapsuloides bryosalmonae; TETRACAPSULOIDES-BRYOSALMONAE; transport host

Female Sociality in the Common Eider Duck Somateria-Mollissima During Brood Rearing - Schmutz, J. K.; Robertson, R. J.; Cooke, F. (Canadian Journal of Zoology, 1982)
The potential adaptive significance was investigated of the behavior of female common eider ducks (Somateria mollissima) which have no young of their own (aunts) but accompany other females and young. Aunts exhibited ambivalent aggression and protection toward ducklings. There was no evidence that the presence of aunts enhanced the survival of the ducklings they accompanied. Both females which had their clutch removed and females which had not laid eggs behaved as aunts. The level of circulating prolactin hormone in aunts was lower than in incubating females and similar to the basal level of males. The hypothesis that maternal care was misdirected during hormonal adjustment from breeding to nonbreeding is rejected. Aunts which have lost a clutch or brood spend some time feeding away from the colony and then return to the nesting grounds after replenishing their nutrient reserves. Upon returning, aunts may select sites for nesting in future years. During this time they are temporarily attracted to broods. Aunts flock and fend off predators during an attack in an attempt to seek safety in a flock rather than to protect ducklings of other females.
Keywords: Behavior; Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Physiology

Colonial Nesting of the Hudson Bay Eider Duck Somateria-Mollissima-Sedentaria - Schmutz, J. K.; Robertson, R. J.; Cooke, F. (Canadian Journal of Zoology, 1983)
The factors influencing colonial nesting of the Hudson Bay eider duck (S. m. sedentaria) were evaluated. Colonial nesting reflected both selection of appropriate nesting habitat by female common eiders and advantages gained through social cooperation in predator defense. Female common eiders preferred to nest on small islands or on promontories near the shore and under shrubs of medium height. Nesting densities were greatest where a relatively large expanse of open water facilitated landing and taking flight. Nesting females gave alarm calls and formed dense flocks in response to a fox model. Egg predation was less in artificial nests which were close to an incubating female than in those situated further away. There was no correlation between degree of nesting synchrony and density of females on an island. Certain groups, exhibited greater nesting synchrony than expected by chance and the variance in egg shape among these females suggested that they were genetically related.
Keywords: Behavior; Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Habitat

Serum Protein Polymorphism in Common Eiders Detected by Isoelectric Focusing - Schmutz, S. M.; Schmutz, J. K.; Simpson, N. E.; Tabel, H. (Biochemical Genetics, 1987)
Keywords: Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Physiology

The Seasonal Variations of the Numbers of Waterfowl Using Mont-Saint-Michel Bay France - Schricke, V. (Alauda, 1984)
Wildfowl counts made at Mont Saint-Michel Bay in northern Brittany, France were analyzed. Counts were annual from 1967-1979 (each Jan.) and monthly during the years 1980-1982. The bay is of particular interest for the large populations of wintering mallard Anas platyrhynchos (.apprx. 6000 in Jan. 1981) and white-fronted geese Anser albifrons albifrons; the later species only regular over-wintering site in France. Although always present, numbers of wigeon Anas penelope increase after very cold weather (20,000 in Jan. 1979, 25,000 in Jan. 1982). The area serves in 5 main ways: as a regular wintering site for mallard, wigeon, teal A. crecca, shelduck Tadorna tadorna, brent geese Branta bernicla and common scoter Melanitta nigra; strategic resting point during migration for pintail A. acuta, shoveler A. clypeata, garganey A. querquedula, wigeon and greylag geese Anser anser; molting site for the common scoter; nesting site for shelduck; refuge during hard weather, particularly for wigeon, mallard and white-fronted geese.
Keywords: Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Sea Ducks - General; Nonbreeding Seasons

Cryptosporidium baileyi - infection in Red-breasted Merganser (Mergus serrator) ducklings from a zoological garden - Schulze, C.; Kammerling, J.; Kutzer, P.; Engelhardt, A.; Richter, B. (Berliner Und Munchener Tierarztliche Wochenschrift, 2012)
Times Cited: 0 Schulze, Christoph Kaemmerling, Jens Kutzer, Peter Engelhardt, Andreas Richter, Barbara 0
Keywords: Breeding Season; Disease; Mergus serrator; Red-breasted merganser

CRYPTOSPORIDIUM BAILEYI INFECTION IN RED-BREASTED MERGANSER DUCKLINGS - Schulze, C.; Kammerling, J.; Kutzer, P.; Richter, B. (Journal of Comparative Pathology, 2012)
Times Cited: 0 Schulze, C. Kaemmerling, J. Kutzer, P. Richter, B. 0
Keywords: Breeding Season; Disease; Mergus serrator; Red-breasted merganser

Sizes and Long-term Trends of Duck Broods in Maine, 1955-2007 - Schummer, M. L.; Allen, R. B.; Wang, G. M. (Northeastern Naturalist, 2011)
Times Cited: 0 Schummer, Michael L. Allen, R. Bradford Wang, Guiming 0
Keywords: common eider; Breeding Season; somateria mollissima; productivity

Selenium Accumulation in Sea Ducks Wintering at Lake Ontario - Schummer, Michael L.; Badzinski, Shannon S.; Petrie, Scott A.; Chen, Yu-Wei; Belzile, Nelson (Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 2010)
Numbers of wintering sea ducks, including buffleheads (Bucephala albeola; BUFF), common goldeneyes (Bucephala clangula; COGO), and long-tailed ducks (Clangula hyemalis; LTDU), increased substantially at Lake Ontario after Dreissenid mussels (Dreissena bugensis and D. polymorpha) colonized the Great Lakes. Invertebrates, including Dreissenid mussels, are major diving duck prey items that can transfer some trace elements, such as selenium (Se) to higher trophic levels. Se can be problematic for waterfowl and it often has been detected at elevated levels in organisms using the Great Lakes. There are, however, few data on hepatic Se concentrations in sea ducks, particularly during the winter at Lake Ontario. In this study, we evaluated interspecific differences and temporal trends in hepatic Se concentrations among BUFF (n = 77), COGO (n = 77), and LTDU (n = 79) wintering at Lake Ontario. All three species accumulated Se throughout winter, but COGO did so at a higher rate than did BUFF and LTDU. Overall, Se concentrations were higher in LTDU [(x) over bar = 22: 7; 95% CI = 20.8-24.8 mu g/g dry weight (dw)] than in BUFF ((x) over bar = 12: 3; 95% CI = 11.6-13.1 mu g/g dw) and COGO ((x) over bar = 12: 0; 95% CI = 10.7-3.5 mu g/g dw) throughout the winter. Se concentrations were deemed elevated (>33 mu g/g dw) in 0%, 5%, and 19% of BUFF, COGO, and LTDU, respectively. Presently there are no data on Se toxicity end points for these species, so it is unclear how acquiring concentrations of these magnitudes affect their short-and long-term health or reproduction.
Keywords: Nonbreeding Seasons; Clangula hyemalis; Long-tailed Duck; Bucephala clangula; Common Goldeneye; Contaminants; Bucephala albeola; Bufflehead

Artifact Ingestion in Sea Ducks Wintering at Northeastern Lake Ontario - Schummer, Michael L.; Fife, Ian; Petrie, Scott A.; Badzinski, Shannon S. (Waterbirds, 2011)
The incidence of lead shot, ingestion in waterfowl has declined in the lower Great Lakes (LGL) following the 1999 Canada-wide ban on use of toxic shot for waterfowl hunting, but few data exist on ingestion frequencies of spent shot or fishing weights for sea ducks wintering at the LGL. Artifact ingestion was evaluated in 269 Buffleheads (Bucephala albeola), 224 Common Goldeneyes (B. clangula) and 256 Long-tailed Ducks (Clangula hyemalis) collected at Lake Ontario during winter 2002-03 and 2003-04. Long-tailed Ducks ingested total shot (lead and steel shot combined) more frequently (6.6%) than did Common Goldeneye (1.8%) and Bufflehead (0.4%). Lead shot was ingested by Long-tailed Ducks (5.1%) and Buffleheads (0.4%), but not by Common Goldeneyes. One Long-tailed Duck, 0.1% of all specimens, ingested one lead fishing weight. Substrate type influenced artifact ingestion frequency and diving ducks that specialize on prey associated with hard substrates may continue to ingest artifacts more than ducks using soft substrate marshes. The results suggest lead toxicosis from spent shotgun pellets is presently non-existent to low in sea ducks wintering at northeastern Lake Ontario and that further restrictions on use of lead fishing tackle may have little implication for sea ducks in this region. Received 12 March 2010, accepted 14 July 2010.
Keywords: Conservation; Nonbreeding Seasons; Clangula hyemalis; Long-tailed Duck; Bucephala clangula; Common Goldeneye; Contaminants; Bucephala albeola; Bufflehead

Interaction between macroinvertebrate abundance and habitat use by diving ducks during winter on northeastern Lake Ontario - Schummer, Michael L.; Petrie, Scott A.; Bailey, Robert C. (Journal of Great Lakes Research, 2008)
Although numbers of buffleheads (Bucephala albeola), common goldeneyes (Bucephala clangula) and long-tailed ducks (Clangula hyemalis) over-wintering on Lake Ontario have increased substantially over the past two decades, factors influencing habitat use and the potential for competition have not been investigated. The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between prey availability and community structure of diving ducks during winter on northeastern Lake Ontario. Benthic and nektonic samples collected during fall, winter, and spring 2002-2004 indicated that macroinvertebrate numbers differed by location but generally did not decline throughout winter. Large accumulations of macroinvertebrates, apparently moved by wave action and currents, were documented in nearshore areas. Surveys showed that diving ducks congregated in mixed species flocks within areas of higher food abundance. Mixed species flocks were common in nearshore areas, likely because energy-dense foods (Amphipoda and Chironomidae) were abundant in the narrow zone of shallow water, close to shore. Although macroinvertebrate numbers likely affected habitat use by diving ducks, birds did not greatly reduce abundance of macroinvertebrates. It is unlikely that exploitative competition was occurring and interference competition appeared below threshold levels that would cause species to spatially segregate. Overall, our results suggest that food availability is not a limiting factor for buffleheads, common goldeneyes, or long-tailed ducks wintering on northeastern Lake Ontario.
Keywords: Nonbreeding Seasons; Clangula hyemalis; Long-tailed Duck; Bucephala clangula; Common Goldeneye; Trophic Interactions; Habitat; Bucephala albeola; Bufflehead

Dietary overlap of sympatric diving ducks during winter on northeastern Lake Ontario - Schummer, Michael L.; Petrie, Scott A.; Bailey, Robert C. (Auk, 2008)
Food resources available to diving ducks wintering on the Great Lakes have changed dramatically since the introduction of dreissenid mussels (Dreissena bugensis and D. polymorpha). We investigated the diets of Buffleheads (Bucephala albeola), Common Goldeneyes (B. clangula), and Long-tailed Ducks (Clangula hyemalis) during winter, 2002-2004, on northeastern Lake Ontario and determined the levels of dietary overlap. Dietary niche-breadth values were low, and dietary overlap values (prey size and type) were high for all species. Ducks primarily consumed high-quality, energy-dense prey (Amphipoda, Chironomidae), which were abundant. Our results highlighted three patterns: (1) dreissenid mussels constituted 85% of the macroinvertebrate community in Lake Ontario but were consumed in relatively low amounts during winter, (2) foods of high energy-density such as Amphipoda and Chironomidae were likely abundant enough for ducks to selectively feed on them, and (3) some constraint caused ducks to select energy-dense prey instead of the most available items (dreissenid mussels). Although the abundance of prey may have allowed numbers of diving ducks to increase in the past few decades on the Great Lakes, the long-term implications of high levels of dietary overlap among diving ducks is relatively unknown and warrants continued monitoring.
Keywords: Nonbreeding Seasons; Clangula hyemalis; Long-tailed Duck; Bucephala clangula; Common Goldeneye; Trophic Interactions; Bucephala albeola; Bufflehead

FACTORS AFFECTING LIPID RESERVES AND FORAGING ACTIVITY OF BUFFLEHEADS, COMMON GOLDENEYES, AND LONG-TAILED DUCKS DURING WINTER AT LAKE ONTARIO - Schummer, M. L.; Petrie, S. A.; Bailey, R. C.; Badzinski, S. S. (Condor, 2012)
Times Cited: 2 Schummer, Michael L. Petrie, Scott A. Bailey, Robert C. Badzinski, Shannon S. 2
Keywords: Behavior; Nonbreeding Seasons; Clangula hyemalis; Long-tailed Duck; Bucephala clangula; Common Goldeneye; Bucephala albeola; Bufflehead; energetics and Nutrition

Sea ducks and impacts of ship traffic in the Baltic Sea - Schwemmer, P.; Garthe, S. (Journal of Ornithology, 2006)
Keywords: Conservation; Sea Ducks - General; Black Scoter; Melanitta nigra

Effects of ship traffic on seabirds in offshore waters: implications for marine conservation and spatial planning - Schwemmer, P.; Mendel, B.; Sonntag, N.; Dierschke, V.; Garthe, S. (Ecological Applications, 2011)
Times Cited: 7 Schwemmer, Philipp Mendel, Bettina Sonntag, Nicole Dierschke, Volker Garthe, Stefan 7
Keywords: Conservation; Nonbreeding Seasons; Sea Ducks

Modelling distribution of common scoter (Melanitta nigra) by its predominant prey, the American razor clam (Ensis leei) and hydrodynamic parameters - Schwemmer, P.; Volmer, H.; Enners, L.; Reimers, H. C.; Binder, K.; Horn, S.; Adler, S.; Fox, A. D.; Garthe, S. (ESTUARINE COASTAL AND SHELF SCIENCE, 2019)
The non-breeding distribution of common scoter (Melanitta nigra), which occur in high densities offshore from the eastern Wadden Sea, has been well documented in recent decades, but factors influencing these patterns remain poorly known. We investigated the prey choice of 88 common scoter using stomach contents of beached birds collected over a period of 12 years. We then used benthos data and hydrodynamic parameters to model the June-September distribution patterns during the flightless period of common scoter based on transect count data off the north-eastern German Wadden Sea. Benthic fauna biomass in areas used by common scoter was higher than in areas where the species was absent. American razor clam (Ensis leei) invaded the Wadden Sea during the end of the 1970s and was the most common prey, both in benthos samples from below feeding common scoter and in stomach samples. The relatively high flesh to shell ratio of the American razor clam makes it the most attractive available prey item for common scoter. The abundance of American razor clams explained the distribution of scoter to a high degree, although the best model fit included negative effects of water depth and positive effects of bed shear stress intensity on scoter abundance. Our data show that the neobiotic American razor clams have become an important part of the diet of these sea ducks, whereas the cut trough shell (Spisula subtruncata) was of substantially lesser importance than expected from historical data. Our study shows the ability of a top avian predator to respond to novel developments in bivalve prey availability over periods of a few decades.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 8 Total Times Cited: 9 Cited Reference Count: 60
Keywords: DUCKS; SIZE; SEABIRDS; Diet; DYNAMICS; BEHAVIOR; Sea duck; WADDEN SEA; Benthos-feeder; BUOYANCY; Habitat model; North sea; Spisula subtruncata

Health Evaluation of Western Arctic King Eiders (Somateria spectabilis) - Scott, Cheryl A.; Mazet, Jonna A. K.; Powell, Abby N. (Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 2010)
The western arctic population of King Eiders (Somateria spectabilis) has declined by >50% in recent years. A health assessment was conducted for adult King Eiders breeding on the north slope of Alaska, USA, to evaluate body condition (n=90, 2002-2006) and baseline biochemical and hematologic values (n=20-30, 2005-2006). Body condition for males and females was excellent. Total protein, calcium, alkaline phosphatase, amylase, and globulin were significantly higher in females than in males, likely because of differences in reproductive physiology. These baseline health data can be used to promote conservation of King Eiders and other closely related species of concern.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Physiology; King Eider; Somateria spectabilis; Energetics and Nutrition

Flying high: A theoretical analysis of the factors limiting exercise performance in birds at altitude - Scott, Graham R.; Milsom, William K. (Respiratory Physiology & Neurobiology, 2006)
The ability of some bird species to fly at extreme altitude has fascinated comparative respiratory physiologists for decades, yet there is still no consensus about what adaptations enable high altitude flight. Using a theoretical model of O-2 transport, we performed a sensitivity analysis of the factors that might limit exercise performance in birds. We found that the influence of individual physiological traits on oxygen consumption (Vo(2)) during exercise differed between sea level, moderate altitude, and extreme altitude. At extreme altitude, haemoglobin (Hb) O-2 affinity, total ventilation, and tissue diffusion capacity for O-2 (D-To2) had the greatest influences on Vo(2); increasing these variables should therefore have the greatest adaptive benefit for high altitude flight. There was a beneficial interaction between D-To2 and the P-50 of Hb, such that increasing D-To2 had a greater influence on V-o2 when P-50 was low. Increases in the temperature effect on P-50 could also be beneficial for high flying birds, provided that cold inspired air at extreme altitude causes a substantial difference in temperature between blood in the lungs and in the tissues. Changes in lung diffusion capacity for O-2, cardiac output, blood Hb concentration, the Bohr coefficient, or the Hill coefficient likely have less adaptive significance at high altitude. Our sensitivity analysis provides theoretical suggestions of the adaptations most likely to promote high altitude flight in birds and provides direction for future in vivo studies. (c) 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Sea Ducks - General; Physiology

Microsatellites identify depredated waterfowl remains from glaucous gull stomachs - Scribner, Kim T.; Bowman, Timothy D. (Molecular Ecology, 1998)
Prey remains can provide valuable sources of information regarding causes of predation and the species composition of a predator's diet. Unfortunately, the highly degraded state of many prey samples from gastrointestinal tracts often precludes unambiguous identification. We describe a procedure by which PCR amplification of taxonomically informative microsatellite loci were used to identify species of waterfowl predated by glaucous gulls (Larus hyperboreus). We found that one microsatellite locus unambiguously distinguished between species of the subfamily Anserinae (whistling ducks, geese and swans) and those of the subfamily Anatidae (all other ducks). An additional locus distinguished the remains of all geese and swan species known to nest on the Yukon-Kuskokwim delta in western Alaska. The study focused on two waterfowl species which have experienced precipitous declines in population numbers: emperor geese (Chen canagica) and spectacled eiders (Somateria fischeri). No evidence of predation on spectacled eiders was observed. Twenty-six percent of all glaucous gull stomachs examined contained the remains of juvenile emperor geese.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Somateria fischeri; Spectacled Eider; Trophic Interactions

Sex-biased gene flow in spectacled eiders (Anatidae): Inferences from molecular markers with contrasting modes of inheritance - Scribner, Kim T.; Petersen, Margaret R.; Fields, Raymond L.; Talbot, Sandra L.; Pearce, John M.; Chesser, Ronald K. (Evolution, 2001)
Genetic markers that differ in mode of inheritance and rate of evolution (a sex-linked Z-specific microsatellite locus, five biparentally inherited microsatellite loci, and maternally inherited mitochondrial (mtDNA) sequences) were used to evaluate the degree of spatial genetic structuring at macro- and microgeographic scales, among breeding regions and local nesting populations within each region, respectively, for a migratory sea duck species, the spectacled eider (Somateria fisheri). Disjunct and declining breeding populations coupled with sex-specific differences in seasonal migratory, patterns and life history provide a series of hypotheses regarding rates and directionality of gene flow among breeding populations from the Indigirka River Delta, Russia, and the North Slope and Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, Alaska. The degree of differentiation in mtDNA haplotype frequency among breeding regions and populations within regions was high (variant phiCT=0.189, P<0.01; variant phiSC=0.059, P<0.01, respectively). Eleven of 17 mtDNA haplotypes were restricted to a single breeding region. Genetic differences among regions were considerably lower for nuclear DNA loci (sex-linked: variant phiST=0.001, P>0.05; biparentally inherited microsatellites: mean theta=0.001, P>0.05) than was observed for mtDNA. Using models explicitly designed for uniparental and biparentally inherited genes, estimates of spatial divergence based on nuclear and mtDNA data together with elements of the species' breeding ecology were used to estimate effective population size and degree of male and female gene flow. Differences in the magnitude and spatial patterns of gene correlations for maternally inherited and nuclear genes revealed that females exhibit greater natal philopatry than do males. Estimates of generational female and male rates of gene flow among breeding regions differed markedly (3.67X10-4 and 1.28X10-2, respectively). Effective population size for mtDNA was estimated to be at least three times lower than that for biparental genes (30,671 and 101,528, respectively). Large disparities in population sizes among breeding areas greatly reduces the proportion of total genetic variance captured by dispersal, which may accelerate rates of inbreeding (i.e., promote higher coancestries) within populations due to nonrandom pairing of males with females from the same breeding population.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Somateria fischeri; Spectacled Eider; Dispersal; Population Delineation

Damages to Seabirds from Oil Spills Comparing Simulation Results and Vulnerability Indexes - Seip, K. L.; Sandersen, E.; Mehlum, F.; Ryssdal, J. (Ecological Modelling, 1991)
The present model for estimating oil damage to seabirds is intended as a tool for a decision-support system in oil combat planning. The model systematizes the most well-known factors which determine seabirds' susceptibility to oil spills and the subsequent recovery of bird populations. The model is formulated as a simulation model describing the two-dimensional distribution pattern of seabird population on the coast and the two-dimensional spreading of an oil slick drifting towards land. Formulations for population dynamics include seabird age structure, recruitment, mortality, and migration. We have demonstrated the use of the model by applying it to a spill affecting three different seabird populations: kittiwake, Rissa tridactyla; common guillemot, Uria aalge; and common eider, Somateria mollissima. Model results are compared to the results of an index system ranging seabird species' vulnerability to oil spills. The simulation model and the index system give about the same level of vulnerability for kittiwake, but the simulation model predicts less effect on common guillemot and common eider than the vulnerability indexes suggest.
Keywords: Conservation; Common Eider; Contaminants; Somateria mollissima; Techniques

Examination of Presence of Specific Antibodies against Avian Influenza Virus in Some Species of Wild Birds - Sekler, M.; Ruzica, Asanin; Krnjaic, D.; Palic, T.; Milic, N.; Tanja, Jovanovic; Dragana, Kovacevic; Plavsic, B.; Dragica, Stojanovic; Vidanovic, D.; Asanin, N. (Acta Veterinaria (Belgrade), 2009)
Infections caused by the avian influenza virus have been known for a long time and they are present, to a smaller or greater extent, in both extensive and intensive poultry production in many parts of the world. Epidemiological investigations have established a definite significance of the population of wild birds in maintaining and spreading this infection. Avian influenza is a zoonosis, and the virus has a great potential for causing mortality in humans, in particular its subtypes H5 and H7, which is why it has lately been provoking much attention among scientists and experts, as well as the general public.The objective of the work was to catch a certain number of wild birds in several locations in the Republic of Serbia, to identify them, and to collect samples of their blood serum for the determination of specific antibodies against the avian influenza virus. Birds were caught in ten locations in a manner that was safe for the birds themselves, as well as for the staff that did the catching. The birds were caught in especially produced nets, and in some cases in special traps. The caught wild birds were identified using the methods described in reference literature. All the names of the wild birds were coordinated with the valid Serbian nomenclature of European birds, prepared by prominent ornithologist and bird lover Milan Ruzic. Following catching and identification, blood samples were taken from the birds from the wing vein (in bigger birds) or from the leg vein (in smaller birds). In taking blood samples from wild birds, all the principles of asepsis and antisepsis were followed in order to prevent any possibility of infection. After that, the birds were returned to their natural habitat, to the same locations in which they were caught. Serums were isolated from the taken blood samples and they were stored at -20 degrees C until the final examinations. A total of 46 species of wild birds were identified among a total of 259 birds from which 259 samples of blood serum were isolated. The following were used for the detection of the presence of specific antibodies against the avian influenza virus in blood serum samples of wild birds: agar gel precipitation (AGP), the hemagglutination inhibition test (HI) for subtypes H5 and H7, the cELISA test with antigen for the A type avian infleunza virus, and the cELISA test with antigen for subtype H5 of the avian influenza virus. Due to the fact that about 360 different species of wild birds live in the Republic of Serbia, the number of 46 identified species covered by these investigations account for 12.77% of the total number of bird species present in Serbia, which is considered a good sample. Specific antibodies against the A type avian influenza virus were established in serum samples of only 9 of the 259 birds covered by examinations using the cELISA test. Of the 46 identified wild bird species, 6 belonged to birds that live exclusively in water habitats and are considered a reservoir of the avian influenza virus (white stork, mallard, mute swan, common pochard, common goldeneye, and Eurasian coot). Among the listed species, particular attention was drawn to 4 species of wild birds of the order Anseriformes and the family Anatidae (mallard, mute swan, common pochard, common goldeneye) of which there were 30 birds among the total of 259 examined. In the 30 blood serum samples of the listed bird species, specific antibodies against the A type avian influenza virus were established in 9 (30%.) serum samples using cELISA. Specific antibodies against the avian inluenza virus subtype H5 were established in 3 serum samples of mute swans (one serum sample originated from a mute swan which was tagged in Poland) and in one blood serum sample of a common pochard, or a total of 4 (13.33%) serum samples, using the hemagglutination inhibition test. Specific antibodies against the avian inluenza virus subtype H7 were established in 3 (10%) blood serum samples, in two serum samples from mallards and one sample from a mute swan, using the hemagglutination inhibition test. Specific antibodies against the avian inluenza virus type A were not established in any examined bird species using the AGP test.In the opulation of wild bird species in the Republic of Serbia covered by these investigations, specific antibodies against the avian influenza virus were established only in serum samples of birds of the family Anatidae, Specific antibodies against the avian inluenza virus type A established in 3 (6.52%) species of wild birds, and against subtypes H5 and H7 in 2 (4.34%) of the total of 46 examined species, The sensitivity of the cELISA test for the avian inluenza virus subtype H5 and the hemagglutination inhibition test for subtype H5 amounted to 100%.
Keywords: Sea Ducks - General; Bucephala clangula; Common Goldeneye; Disease

Fish Spawn as Food of Birds - Sellin, D. (Vogelwelt, 1990)
Fish spawn has rarely been mentioned in the ornithological literature as food of birds. Most authors regarded this type of diet as exceptional. Systematic surveys of water birds in the Grefswalder Bodden area (southern Baltic Sea, NE Germany), an area well-known as a herring spawning ground for more than 700 years, yielded many observations of birds eating spawn. During 1981 to 1990 there were 37 such records concerning 18 species and ca. 250,000 individuals. Herring spawn is especially important for wintering Long-tailed Ducks, up to 10,000 of which have been seen feeding on it on seven occasions. Concentrations of wintering Long-tailed Ducks are closely correlated with favoured herring spawning areas. According to our observations at Greifswalder Bodden fish spawn can also be an important component of the diet of Greater Scaup, Tufted Duck, Goldeneye and Black-headed Gull, at least temporarily.
Keywords: Sea Ducks - General; Nonbreeding Seasons; Clangula hyemalis; Long-tailed Duck; Trophic Interactions

Boldness and Stress Responsiveness as Drivers of Nest-Site Selection in a Ground-Nesting Bird - Seltmann, M. W.; Jaatinen, K.; Steele, B. B.; Ost, M. (Ethology, 2014)
Nest-site selection involves trade-offs between the probability of nest discovery by egg predators, danger to the incubating parent from predators and provision of an appropriate microclimate for incubation, and all three components are potentially influenced by nest concealment and distance to habitat edge. Personality traits also affect habitat choice, and the trade-off hypothesis suggests that variable stress-coping strategies may evolve because individuals prioritize either productivity (proactive coping) or survival (reactive coping), both of which cannot be simultaneously maximized. Applying this hypothesis to understand nest-site selection by female eider ducks (Somateria mollissima), we predicted that bold individuals with attenuated stress responsiveness should select concealed nests further away from the shore, thereby promoting clutch survival at the potential expense of reduced escape opportunities for themselves. In testing this prediction, we controlled for individual quality (female body condition and breeding experience) and verified that individual stress responses and nest-site preferences were consistent by analysing their repeatability. Finally, we analysed how the viable proportion of the clutch was related to nest-site and female characteristics. Our prediction was supported: bold females [short flight initiation distance (FID)] and those with lower handling-induced body temperature were found in concealed nests, and bold females and those with lower handling-induced corticosterone concentrations occupied nests farther from the shore. The viable proportion of the clutch peaked at intermediate proportional nest-cover and increased linearly with increasing nest distance from the shore. Stress coping styles may thus be related to nest-site selection, but their fitness consequences may be manifested indirectly through the nest-site characteristics.
Seltmann, Martin W. Jaatinen, Kim Steele, Benjamin B. Ost, Markus
Keywords: Behavior; Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima

Stress responsiveness, age and body condition interactively affect flight initiation distance in breeding female eiders - Seltmann, M. W.; Ost, M.; Jaatinen, K.; Atkinson, S.; Mashburn, K.; Hollmen, T. (Animal Behaviour, 2012)
Times Cited: 3 Seltmann, Martin W. Ost, Markus Jaatinen, Kim Atkinson, Shannon Mashburn, Kendall Hollmen, Tuula Jaatinen, Kim/A-3221-2011 3
Keywords: Behavior; Breeding Season; Somateria mollissima; Common eider; energetics and Nutrition

Interactions between lay date, clutch size, and postlaying energetic needs in a capital breeder - Senechal, Edith; Bety, Joel; Gilchrist, H. Grant (Behavioral Ecology, 2011)
The condition-dependent model of optimal clutch size assumes body reserves required to initiate egg production include those for subsequent breeding phases. The threshold is expected to be similar among individuals, and hence postlaying condition should be independent of clutch size and lay date. Alternatively, the cost of incubation hypothesis predicts that females laying larger clutches should secure extra resources for incubation, and the expected fitness hypothesis suggests females adjust their condition according to the anticipated fitness benefits of the clutch. In these 2 cases, postlaying condition is predicted to be positively related to clutch size. We tested these predictions in common eider (Somateria mollissima), a precocial bird that produce eggs mostly from stored lipids and partly from endogenous proteins and rely extensively on reserves to incubate. We collected females at incubation onset and measured body condition indicators. Clutch size (number of eggs laid or number found in the nest at incubation onset) was not related to postlaying fat stores but females that laid fewer eggs maintained extra protein reserves. Timing of breeding was not related to postlaying body mass or protein reserves, whereas lay date's relationship with fat stores varied annually. Our results are generally consistent with the condition-dependent model and indicate variation in postlaying condition is mostly driven by factors other than clutch size and lay date. These data are inconsistent with the cost of incubation and the expected fitness hypotheses and suggest body store differences at incubation onset are mostly caused by environmental conditions encountered by laying females.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Productivity; Energetics and Nutrition

Do purely capital layers exist among flying birds? Evidence of exogenous contribution to arctic-nesting common eider eggs - Senechal, Edith; Bety, Joel; Gilchrist, H. Grant; Hobson, Keith A.; Jamieson, Sarah E. (Oecologia (Berlin), 2011)
The strategy of relying extensively on stored resources for reproduction has been termed capital breeding and is in contrast to income breeding, where needs of reproduction are satisfied by exogenous (dietary) resources. Most species likely fall somewhere between these two extremes, and the position of an organism along this gradient can influence several key life-history traits. Common eiders (Somateria mollissima) are the only flying birds that are still typically considered pure capital breeders, suggesting that they depend exclusively on endogenous reserves to form their eggs and incubate. We investigated the annual and seasonal variation in contributions of endogenous and exogenous resources to egg formation in eiders breeding at the East Bay colony in the Canadian Arctic. We collected prey items along with females and their eggs during various stages of breeding and used two complementary analytical approaches: body reserve dynamics and stable isotope [delta C-13, delta N-15] mixing models. Indices of protein reserves remained stable from pre-laying to post-laying stages, while lipid reserves declined significantly during laying. Similarly, stable isotope analyses indicated that (1) exogenous nutrients derived from marine invertebrates strongly contributed to the formation of lipid-free egg constituents, and (2) yolk lipids were constituted mostly from endogenous lipids. We also found evidence of seasonal variation in the use of body reserves, with early breeders using proportionally more exogenous proteins to form each egg than late breeders. Based on these results, we reject the hypothesis that eiders are pure capital layers. In these flying birds, the fitness costs of a strict capital breeding strategy, such as temporary loss of flight capability and limitation of clutch and egg size, may outweigh benefits such as a reduction in egg predation rate.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Energetics and Nutrition

Nesting Ecology of Common Goldeneyes and Hooded Mergansers in a Boreal River System - Senechal, Helene; Gauthier, Gilles; Savard, Jean-Pierre L. (Wilson Journal of Ornithology, 2008)
Common Goldeneyes (Bucephala clangula) and Hooded Mergansers (Lophodytes cucullatus) are common cavity-nesting ducks but the importance of fast-flowing rivers as suitable nesting habitat may have been overlooked. We monitored the use of > 90 nest boxes installed along a boreal forest river over a 5-year period. A high nest box occupancy rate was reached in the second year (40%) and was maintained thereafter (48 to 55%). On average, 35 nest boxes were occupied by goldeneyes and 11 by mergansers each year. Laying date was similar between the two species but merganser nests hatched slightly later. Both species had similar clutch sizes but merganser nests contained more eggs than goldeneye nests when heterospecific parasitic eggs were included. On average, 16% of goldeneye nests were parasitized by mergansers, and 49% of merganser nests were parasitized by goldeneyes. Density of suitable natural cavities in the area was relatively low suggesting the hi,,h occupancy rate of nest boxes may be a response to lack of suitable cavities. Nest box use was positively related to the total surface area of ponds in the vicinity and negatively to distance to the river. Use of nest sites along fast-flowing rivers appears to be an opportunistic strategy and may be dependant on the presence of nearby ponds and lakes.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Bucephala clangula; Common Goldeneye; Habitat; Hooded Merganser; Lophodytes cucullatus

Factors Influencing Immediate Post-Release Survival of Spectacled Eiders Following Surgical Implantation of Transmitters With Percutaneous Antennae - Sexson, M. G.; Mulcahy, D. M.; Spriggs, M.; Myers, G. E. (Journal of Wildlife Management, 2014)
Surgically implanted transmitters are a common method for tracking animal movements. Immediately following surgical implantation, animals pass through a critical recovery phase when behaviors may deviate from normal and the likelihood of individual survival may be reduced. Therefore, data collected during this period may be censored to minimize bias introduced by surgery-related behaviors or mortality. However, immediate post-release mortalities negate a sampling effort and reduce the amount of data potentially collected after the censoring period. Wildlife biologists should employ methods to support an animal's survival through this period, but factors contributing to immediate post-release survival have not been formally assessed. We evaluated factors that potentially influenced the immediate post-release survival of 56 spectacled eiders (Somateria fischeri) marked with coelomically implanted satellite transmitters with percutaneous antennae in northern Alaska in 2010 and 2011. We modeled survival through the first 14 days following release and assessed the relative importance and effect of 15 covariates hypothesized to influence survival during this immediate post-release period. Estimated daily survival rate increased over the duration of the immediate post-release period; the probability of mortality was greatest within the first 5 days following release. Our top-ranking model included the effect of 2 blood analytes, pH and hematocrit, measured prior to surgical implantation of a transmitter. We found a positive response to pH; eiders exhibiting acidemia (low pH) prior to surgery were less likely to survive the immediate post-release period. We found a curvilinear response to hematocrit; eiders exhibiting extremely low or high pre-surgery hematocrit were also less likely to survive the immediate post-release period. In the interest of maximizing the survival of marked birds following release, hematological data obtained prior to surgical implantation of telemetry equipment may be useful when screening for optimal surgical candidates or informing appropriate response to mitigate potentially deleterious disorders such as acidemia. Published 2014. This article is a U. S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.
Sexson, Matthew G. Mulcahy, Daniel M. Spriggs, Maria Myers, Gwen E.
Keywords: Somateria fischeri; Spectacled Eider; Physiology; Survival; Techniques

Shifts in the distribution of molting Spectacled Eiders (Somateria fischeri) indicate ecosystem change in the Arctic - Sexson, M. G.; Petersen, M. R.; Breed, G. A.; Powell, A. N. (Condor, 2016)
Shifts in the distribution of benthivorous predators provide an indication of underlying environmental changes in benthic-mediated ecosystems. Spectacled Eiders (Somateria fischeri) are benthivorous sea ducks that spend the nonbreeding portion of their annual cycle in the Bering, Chukchi, Beaufort, and East Siberian seas. Sea ducks generally molt in biologically productive areas with abundant prey. If the distribution of eiders at molting areas matches prey abundance, spatial shifts may indicate changes in environmental conditions in the Arctic. We used a randomization procedure to test for shifts in the distribution of satellite telemetry locations received from Spectacled Eiders in the 1990s and 2008-2011 within 4 late-summer, ice-free molting areas: Indigirka-Kolyma, northern Russia; Ledyard Bay, eastern Chukchi Sea; Norton Sound, northeastern Bering Sea; and Mechigmenskiy Gulf, northwestern Bering Sea. We also tested for interannual and interdecadal changes in dive depth required to reach prey, which might affect the energetic costs of foraging during the molting period. Transmitter-marked birds used each molting area in each year, although the distribution of Spectacled Eiders shifted within each area. Interdecadal shifts in Ledyard Bay and Norton Sound decreased dive depth in recent years, although minor differences in depth were biologically negligible in relation to the energetic expense of feather growth. Shifts in Mechigmenskiy Gulf and Indigirka-Kolyma did not occur consistently within or among decades, which suggests greater interannual variability among environmental factors that influence distribution in these areas. Shifts in each molting area suggest dynamic ecosystem processes, with implications for Spectacled Eiders if changes result in novel competition or predation, or in shifting prey regimes.
Sexson, Matthew G. Petersen, Margaret R. Breed, Greg A. Powell, Abby N.
Keywords: Somateria fischeri; Spectacled Eider; Molt; Habitat; Abundance, Distribution, & Trends; Nonbreeding season

Long-term changes in oil pollution off the Belgian coast: Evidence from beached bird monitoring - Seys, Jan; Offringa, Henk; Meire, Patrick; Van Waeyenberge, Jeroen; Kuijken, Eckhart (Belgian Journal of Zoology, 2002)
Trends in oil pollution in the southernmost (Belgian) part of the North Sea were analysed using a dataset of 37 years (1962-99) of annual national beached bird surveys conducted in February each year. The most abundant seabird groups represented in the beached birds were auks (31%), gulls (28%), scoters (17%) and Kittiwake (9%). Oil rates of most bird species/taxa indicate a decline in oil pollution, though only Larus-gulls, Common Guillemot and Razorbill show significant reductions. The slope in the linear decreasing trend is steeper in inshore and midshore species, than in pelagic species. A power analysis of the results demonstrated that statistically significant trends in annual indices would be expected within 17 years for Razorbill, 29 years for Larus-gulls and 31 years for Common Guillemot. For other species/taxa, at least 50 years of surveying would be required. Long-term oil pollution monitoring in Belgium should be continued with a major focus on a set of abundant bird taxa, sensitive to oil-pollution and occurring in various marine habitats. Most appropriate for this purpose are grebes (inshore), Larus-gulls, Common Guillemot and Razorbill (midshore) and Kittiwake and Fulmar (offshore).
Keywords: Sea Ducks - General; Nonbreeding Seasons; Contaminants

Effect of sex, temperature, time and flock size on the diving behavior of the wintering Scaly-sided Merganser (Mergus squamatus) - Shao, M. Q.; Chen, B. (AVIAN RESEARCH, 2017)
Background: The foraging and diving behavior of waterfowl are affected by a number of important factors. Hence, learning more about these major factors is of great concern in order to protect endangered species. In this study, we verified the effect of sex, temperature, time and flock size on the diving behavior of the Scaly-sided Merganser (Mergus squamatus). Methods: The study was conducted by means of focal animal sampling in the Wuyuan section of the Poyang Lake watershed in Jiangxi Province, China from December 2015 to March 2016. We used one-way ANOVA and LSD tests to investigate the differences among these factors. Pearson correlations were used to test the relation between pause duration and the previous or subsequent dive duration. The relations between these factors and dive/pause duration are illustrated using Spearman correlations. Results: Mean dive duration and mean time on the pause of males were significantly higher than those of females. With an increase in temperature, dive duration significantly increased. Along with the passage of time of year and daytime, dive duration significantly increased, while dive duration decreased significantly with the increase in flock size. Conclusions: Sex, temperature, time and flock size have an effect on the diving behavior of the wintering Scaly-sided Merganser. The difference of diving behavior between males and females is related to differences in body mass. The difference of diving behavior among various temperatures and time periods may be related to a low minimum rate of oxygen consumption, while the difference among various flock sizes may be caused by rising intraspecific competition.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 2 Total Times Cited: 3 Cited Reference Count: 41
Keywords: Diving behavior; Flock size; Scaly-sided Merganser; Sex; Temperature; Time; PATTERNS; PHYSIOLOGY; MIGRATION; DEPTH; ALLOMETRY; AUTUMN; CORMORANT; INTERSEXUAL DIFFERENCES; SEASONAL-CHANGES

Winter Ecology and Conservation Threats of Scaly-sided Merganser Mergus squamatus in Poyang Lake Watershed, China - Shao, M. Q.; Zeng, B. B.; Tim, H.; Chen, L. X.; You, C. Y.; Wang, H. B.; Dai, N. H. (Pakistan Journal of Zoology, 2012)
Times Cited: 0 Shao, Mingqin Zeng, Binbin Tim, Hounsome Chen, Lixin You, Chaying Wang, Hongbin Dai, Nianhua 1
Keywords: Scaly-sided Merganser; Mergus squamatus

Home Range and Group Characteristics of Wintering Scaly-Sided Merganser Mergus squamatus in the Watershed of Poyang Lake, China - Shao, M. Q. Q.; Chen, B.; Cui, P.; Zeng, B. B.; Jiang, J. H. (PAKISTAN JOURNAL OF ZOOLOGY, 2017)
Time budgets provide important information for the study of animal behavior. The present study analyzed the daily travel distance, home range and group characteristics of scaly-sided merganser Mergus squamatus in Yihuang and Wuyuan counties, Jiangxi Province, China, from December 2012 to March 2013 and December 2015 to March 2016. Results showed that the daily travel distance of scaly-sided merganser was 3100 +/- 1313 m; the daily home range was 122,460 +/- 42,019 m(2); and the overall home range was 202,350 m(2) during the wintering period. No significant difference was detected in the daily travel distance between different months (F = 0.658, P> 0.05). Significant differences were detected in the daily home rang between January and February, and between February and March. No significant correlation was observed between daily travel distance and home range (R = 0.256, n = 12, P > 0.05). The significant correlation between daily home range and daily minimum temperature may be related to energy requirements or prey activities. The average group size of the scaly-sided merganser was 3.91 +/- 2.94 individuals, and extremely significant differences existed at different time of day (F = 25.540, df = 11, P < 0.01). The largest group size (5.22 +/- 5 individuals) appeared at 16:00-17:00, and the smallest at 08:00-09:00 (2.6 +/- 1.12 individuals), similar results obtained between December 2015 and March 2016, which was related to the daily habits of this species, such as dispersed foraging, collective maintenance and rest. Group size peaked in February (5.07 +/- 4.166 individuals) and was smallest (2.91 +/- 1.354 individuals) in December with significantly different group sizes in all months (F = 35.351, df = 3, P < 0.01). A total of 57.98% of all groups had a majority of females. A large difference in sex ratios was observed among different months. The actual ratio of [(adult + sub-adult male): (adult + sub-adult female)] was 1:1.44 (n = 22) in February. Future studies are necessary, and the main goal should be focused on sex ratio, mortality and sex ratio at birth.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 0 Total Times Cited: 0 Cited Reference Count: 31
Keywords: Scaly-sided Merganser; SELECTION; BEHAVIOR; GROUP-SIZE; DIET; CONSTRAINTS; Daily home range; Daily travel distance; Group characteristics; Merges squalled-us; PRIMATES

Experimental Infection of Common Eider Ducklings with Wellfleet Bay Virus, a Newly Characterized Orthomyxovirus - Shearn-Bochsler, V.; Ip, H. S.; Ballmann, A.; Hall, J. S.; Allison, A. B.; Ballard, J.; Ellis, J. C.; Cook, R.; Gibbs, S. E. J.; Dwyer, C. (EMERGING INFECTIOUS DISEASES, 2017)
Wellfleet Bay virus (WFBV), a novel orthomyxovirus in the genus Quaranjavirus, was first isolated in 2006 from carcasses of common eider (Somateria mollissima) during a mortality event in Wellfleet Bay (Barnstable County, Massachusetts, USA) and has since been repeatedly isolated during recurrent mortality events in this location. Hepatic, pancreatic, splenic, and intestinal necrosis was observed in dead eiders. We inoculated 6-week-old common eider ducklings with WFBV in an attempt to recreate the naturally occurring disease. Approximately 25% of inoculated eiders had onset of clinical disease and required euthanasia; an additional 18.75% were adversely affected based on net weight loss during the trial. Control ducklings did not become infected and did not have clinical disease. Infected ducklings with clinical disease had pathologic lesions consistent with those observed during natural mortality events. WFBV was reisolated from 37.5% of the inoculated ducklings. Ducklings surviving to 5 days postinoculation developed serum antibody titers to WFBV.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 3 Total Times Cited: 3 Cited Reference Count: 14

Trends in the abundance of diving ducks and seaducks wintering in Japan - Shimada, T.; Mori, A.; Higuchi, H. (WILDFOWL, 2016)
Japan is an important wintering area for many Asian diving duck and seaduck populations, although their status and trends in abundance are poorly known and previously undescribed. Trends in annual abundance therefore were analysed for nine common diving and seaduck species wintering in the country, using data from the national waterbird surveys undertaken annually by volunteers and coordinated by the Ministry-of the Environment and local prefectures over the past 46 years. Annual indices and short-term (16 years: 2000-2015), medium-term (26 years: 1990-2015) and long-term (36 years and 46 years to 2015) trends in numbers were calculated for each species using TRIM software. The indices recorded for Long-tailed Duck Clangula hyemalis, Harlequin Duck Histrionicus histrionicus, Black Scoter Melanitta americana and Red-breasted Merganser Mergus serrator all exhibited significant long-term declines; Common Goldeneye Bucephala clangula and Common Pochard Aythya ferina showed moderate declines over the 26-year period; and Greater Scaup A. marila declined during 2000-2015. Numbers of Tufted Duck A. fuligula increased significantly over 36- and 26-year time-scales, but it was found to be "stable" over the most recent 16 years. Velvet Scoters Melanitta fusca have tended to decrease since their peak abundance in 1977, although TRIM's criteria indicated that the trend was "uncertain".
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 0 Total Times Cited: 0 Cited Reference Count: 24

Vulnerability of birds to climate change in California's Sierra Nevada - Siegel, R. B.; Pyle, P.; Thorne, J. H.; Holguin, A. J.; Howell, C. A.; Stock, S.; Tingley, M. W. (Avian Conservation and Ecology, 2014)
In a rapidly changing climate, effective bird conservation requires not only reliable information about the current vulnerability of species of conservation concern, but also credible projections of their future vulnerability. Such projections may enable managers to preempt or reduce emerging climate-related threats through appropriate habitat management. We used NatureServe's Climate Change Vulnerability Index (CCVI) to predict vulnerability to climate change of 168 bird species that breed in the Sierra Nevada mountains of California, USA. The CCVI assesses species-specific exposure and sensitivity to climate change within a defined geographic area, through the integration of (a) species' range maps, (b) information about species' natural history traits and ecological relationships, (c) historic and current climate data, and (d) spatially explicit climate change projections. We conducted the assessment under two different downscaled climate models with divergent projections about future precipitation through the middle of the 21st century. Assessments differed relatively little under the two climate models. Of five CCVI vulnerability ranking categories, only one species, White-tailed Ptarmigan (Lagopus leucura), received the most vulnerable rank, Extremely Vulnerable. No species received the second-highest vulnerability ranking, Highly Vulnerable. Sixteen species scored as Moderately Vulnerable using one or both climate models: Common Merganser (Mergus merganser), Osprey (Pandion haliaetus), Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), Northern Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis), Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus), Prairie Falcon (Falco mexicanus), Spotted Sandpiper (Actitis macularius), Great Gray Owl (Strix nebulosa), Black Swift (Cypseloides niger), Clark's Nutcracker (Nucifraga columbiana), American Dipper (Cinclus mexicanus), Swainson's Thrush (Catharus ustulatus), American Pipit (Anthus rubescens), Gray-crowned Rosy-Finch (Leucosticte tephrocotis), Pine Grosbeak (Pinicola enucleator), and Evening Grosbeak (Coccothraustes vespertinus). Species associated with alpine/subalpine habitats and aquatic habitats received significantly more vulnerable rankings than birds associated with other habitats. In contrast, species of foothill, sagebrush, and chaparral habitats ranked as less vulnerable than other species, and our results suggest these species may respond to climate change in the region with population increases or range expansions.
Siegel, Rodney B. Pyle, Peter Thorne, James H. Holguin, Andrew J. Howell, Christine A. Stock, Sarah Tingley, Morgan W.
Keywords: Conservation; Breeding Season; Mergus merganser; Habitat; Common Merganser

Climbing ability of ducklings of some cavity-nesting waterfowl - Siegfried, W. Roy (Wildfowl, 1974)
Keywords: Behavior; Breeding Season; Hooded Merganser; Lophodytes cucullatus

Lead poisoning of waterfowl by contaminated sediment in the Coeur d'Alene River - Sileo, L.; Creekmore, L. H.; Audet, D. J.; Snyder, M. R.; Meteyer, C. U.; Franson, J. C.; Locke, L. N.; Smith, M. R.; Finley, D. L. (Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 2001)
The Coeur d'Alene River basin in Idaho has been contaminated by mine tailings that have impaired the health of wildlife since the early 1900s. In other parts of the world, virtually all lead poisoning of waterfowl is caused by the ingestion of manmade lead artifacts, primarily spent lead shot-shell pellets or, occasionally, fishing sinkers. However, in the Coeur d'Alene River basin in Idaho, nonartifactual lead poisoning was the ultimate cause of death of most of 219 (77%) of 285 waterfowl carcasses that had been found sick or dead from 1992 through 1997. The majority of these 219 waterfowl (172 tundra swans (Cygnus columbianus), 33 Canada geese (Branta canadensis), and 14 other species) were poisoned by ingesting river sediment that was contaminated with lead. The next most common cause of death (20 instances, 7%) was lead poisoning accompanied by ingested shotshell pellets. The remaining 46 waterfowl succumbed to trauma, infectious diseases (aspergillosis, avian cholera, tuberculosis), or miscellaneous problems, or the cause of death was not determined.
Keywords: Sea Ducks - General; Contaminants

Wintering Sea Duck Distribution Along the Atlantic Coast of the United States - Silverman, E. D.; Saalfeld, D. T.; Leirness, J. B.; Koneff, M. D. (JOURNAL OF FISH AND WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT, 2013)
Although monitoring data for sea ducks (Tribe Mergini) are limited, current evidence suggests that four of the most common species wintering along the eastern coast of the United States-long-tailed duck Clangula hyemalis, white-winged scoter Melanitta fusca, surf scoter Melanitta perspicillata, and black scoter Melanitta americana-may be declining, while the status of American common eider Somateria mollissima dresseri is uncertain. The apparent negative trends, combined with the fact that sea duck life histories are among the most poorly documented of North American waterfowl, have led to concerns for these species and questions about the impacts of human activities, such as hunting, as well as catastrophic events and environmental change. During winter, thousands of sea ducks are found along the U. S. Atlantic coast, where they may be affected by proposed wind-power development, changes to marine traffic, aquaculture practices, sand mining, and other coastal development. Possible impacts are difficult to quantify because traditional winter waterfowl surveys do not cover many of the marine habitats used by sea ducks. Thus, the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service conducted an experimental survey of sea ducks from 2008 to 2011 to characterize their winter distributions along the U. S. Atlantic coast. Each year, data were collected on 11 species of sea ducks on >200 transects, stretching from Maine to Florida. In this paper, we describe distribution of common eider, long-tailed duck, white-winged scoter, surf scoter, and black scoter. Densities of the two species with the most northerly distribution, white-winged scoter and common eider, were highest near Cape Cod and Nantucket. Long-tailed duck was most abundant around Cape Cod, Nantucket Shoals, and in Chesapeake Bay. Surf scoter also concentrated within Chesapeake Bay; however, they were additionally found in high densities in Delaware Bay, and along the Maryland-Delaware outer coast. Black scoter, the most widely distributed species, occurred at high densities along the South Carolina coast and the mouth of Chesapeake Bay. Spatial patterns of high-density transects were consistent among years for all species except black scoter, which exhibited the most interannual variation in distribution. The distance from land, depth, and bottom slope where flocks were observed varied among species and regions, with a median distance of 3.8 km from land along the coastal transects and 75% of flocks observed over depths of,16 m. Common eider and long-tailed duck were observed closer to shore and over steeper ocean bottoms than were the three scoter species. Our results represent the first large-scale quantitative description of winter sea duck distribution along the U. S. Atlantic coast, and should guide the development of sea duck monitoring programs and aid the assessment of potential impacts of ongoing and proposed offshore development.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 24 Total Times Cited: 25 Cited Reference Count: 35
Keywords: long-tailed duck; scoter; sea ducks; BIRDS; COMMON EIDERS; eider; WATERFOWL; Atlantic coast; OSCILLATION; survey; winter

Occurrence of perfluoroalkyl surfactants in water, fish, and birds from New York State - Sinclair, Ewan; Mayack, David T.; Roblee, Kenneth; Yamashita, Nobuyoshi; Kannan, Kurunthachalam (Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 2006)
Concentrations of perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) and several other perfluoroalkyl surfactants (PASs) were determined in nine major water bodies (n = 51) of New York State (NYS). These PASs were also measured in the livers of two species of sport fish (n = 66) from 20 inland lakes in NYS. Finally, perfluorinated compounds were measured in the livers of 10 species of waterfowl (n = 87) from the Niagara River region in NYS. PFOS, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), and perfluorohexanesulfonate (PFHS) were ubiquitous in NYS waters. PFOA was typically found at higher concentrations than were PFOS and PFHS. Elevated concentrations of PFOS were found in surface waters of Lake Onondaga, and elevated concentrations of PFOA were found in the Hudson River. PFOS was the most abundant perfluorinated compound in all fish and bird samples. PFOS concentrations in the livers of fishes ranged from 9 to 315 ng/g wet weight. PFOS, PFOA, and PFOSA (perfluorooctanesulfonamide) concentrations in smallmouth and largemouth bass (taken together) caught in remote mountain lakes with no known point sources of PAS contamination were 14 to 207, < 1.5 to 6.1, and < 1.5 to 9.8 ng/g wet weight, respectively. PFOS concentrations in the livers of birds ranged from 11 to 882 ng/g wet weight. PFOS concentrations were 2.5-fold greater (p = 0.001) in piscivorous birds than in non-piscivorous birds. However, PFOA, PFOSA, and PFHS were not found in bird livers. Overall, average concentrations of PFOS in fish were 8850-fold greater than those in surface water. An average biomagnification factor of 8.9 was estimated for PFOS in common merganser relative to that in fish. This study highlights the significance of dietary fish in PFOS accumulation in the food chain. Furthermore, our results provide information on the distribution of PASs in natural waters, fish, and several bird species in NYS.
Keywords: Sea Ducks - General; Contaminants; Common merganser

Bird feather fungi from Svalbard Arctic - Singh, S. M.; Tsuji, M.; Gawas-Sakhalker, P.; Loonen, Mjje; Hoshino, T. (Polar Biology, 2016)
Despite feather fungi being an important component of the Arctic fungal flora, their ecological role and diversity are not fully known. In the current study, fungal cultures were isolated from feathers (barnacle goose, common eider, and glaucous gull) collected in the Ny-lesund region, Svalbard. Isolates were identified by ITS region sequences, which include the ITS1, ITS2, and 5.8S rRNA. The result showed culturable yeast and filamentous fungi belonging to three classes: Ascomycota (Pyrenochaetopsis pratorum, Cladosporium herbarum, Thelebolus microsporus, Aspergillus versicolor, Penicillium commune, and Venturia sp.), Basidiomycota (Mrakia blollopis and Rhodotorula mucilaginosa), and Zygomycota (Mucor flavus). Most of the fungal isolates appeared to be cold-tolerant, and about 60 % of the isolates showed keratinase activity. The reasonably low fungal diversity colonizing feathers indicates that the birds of Svalbard are casual carriers of fungi which may result in a negligible impact on their health. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first record of fungal communities present on the feathers of birds in the high Arctic.
Singh, Shiv M. Tsuji, Masaharu Gawas-Sakhalker, Puja Loonen, Maarten J. J. E. Hoshino, Tamotsu
Keywords: Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Parasites

Eiders (Somateria mollissima) obtain nodularin, a cyanobacterial hepatotoxin, in Baltic Sea food web - Sipia, Vesa O.; Karlsson, Krister M.; Meriluoto, Jussi A. O.; Kankaanpaa, Harri T. (Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 2004)
Nodularin (NODLN) is a cyclic pentapeptide hepatotoxin produced by the cyanobacterium Nodularia spumigena, which occurs regularly in the Baltic Sea during the summer season. Nodularia blooms have caused several animal kills in the Baltic Sea area, and NODLN has been found in mussels and fish caught from the northern Baltic Sea in 1996 to 2002. We analyzed liver samples of common eider (Somateria mollissima) for NODLN by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC-MS). Eiders feed extensively on mussel and can be exposed to NODLN by contaminated mussels. Fifteen ciders were shot and collected from three different sites in the western Gulf of Finland (northern Baltic Sea) in August and September 2002. Analyses by ELISA and LC-MS showed that eider liver samples contained 3 to 180 mug NODLN/kg dry weight and 0.1 to 5.8 mug NODLN/liver (dry wt). This is the first documentation of NODLN in seabirds and additional evidence for the transfer of NODLN in different parts of the Baltic Sea food web.
Keywords: Common Eider; Nonbreeding Seasons; Somateria mollissima; Disease

Nodularin in feathers and liver of eiders (Somateria mollissima) caught from the western Gulf of Finland in June-September 2005 - Sipia, Vesa O.; Neffling, Milla-Riina; Metcalf, James S.; Nybom, Sonja M. K.; Meriluoto, Jussi A. O.; Codd, Geoffrey A. (Harmful Algae, 2008)
Nodularins are cyanobacterial hepatotoxins, which may cause intoxication at very low exposure levels. The nodularin-producing cyanobacterium Nodularia spumigena usually forms massive blooms in much of the Baltic Sea during the summer season. Breast feathers and liver samples from common eider (Somateria mollissima) were analysed for nodularins by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Fifteen ciders from the western Gulf of Finland were caught by hunters between June and September 2005. Blue mussels (Mytilus edulis), a dietary component of the birds, were also obtained by diving near the same marine area and time as the collection of the ducks. Eider breast feathers contained 6-52 mu g nodularin-R (Nod-R)/kg dry weight (dw) by ELISA, and 8-43 mu g Nod-R/kg dw by LC-MS. No Nodularia filaments were adhered to feather samples according to light microscopy assessment. Liver samples from the same individuals contained Nod-R between 3 and 48 mu g/kg dw by LC-MS. Mussel samples from the area contained Nod-R at concentrations of 12-80 mu g/kg dw by LC-MS. Analysis of bird feathers offers a facile and non-invasive means of assessing the exposure of birds to nodularins. (c) 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Disease

Analysis of nodularin-R in eider (Somateria mollissima), roach (Rutilus rutilus L.), and flounder (Platichthys flesus L.) liver and muscle samples from the western Gulf of Finland, northern Baltic Sea - Sipia, Vesa O.; Sjovall, Olli; Valtonen, Terhi; Barnaby, Deborah L.; Codd, Geoffrey A.; Metcalf, James S.; Kilpi, Mikael; Mustonen, Olli; Meriluoto, Jussi A. O. (Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 2006)
Nodularin (NODLN) is a cyanobacterial hepatotoxin that may cause toxic effects at very low exposure levels. The NODLN-producing cyanobacterium Nodularia spumigena forms massive blooms in the northern Baltic Sea, especially during the summer. We analyzed liver and muscle (edible meat) samples from common eider (Somateria mollissima), roach (Rutilus rutilus L.), and flounder (Platichthys flesus L.) for NODLN-R by liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC-MS) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Thirty ciders, 11 roach, and 15 flounders were caught from the western Gulf of Finland between September 2002 and October 2004. Eiders from April to June 2003 were found dead. The majority of samples were analyzed by LC-MS and ELISA from the same sample extracts (water:methanol:n-butanol, 75:20:5, v:v:v). Nodularin was detected in 27 ciders, nine roach, and eight flounders. Eider liver samples contained NODLN up to approximately 200 mu g/kg dry weight and muscle samples at approximately 20 mu g/kg dry weight, roach liver samples 20 to 900 mu g NODLN/kg dry weight and muscle samples 2 to 200 mu g NODLN/kg dry weight, and flounder liver samples approximately 5 to 1,100 mu g NODLN/kg dry weight and muscle samples up to 100 mu g NODLN/kg dry weight. The NODLN concentrations found in individual muscle samples of flounders, eiders, and roach (1-200 mu g NODLN/kg dry wt) indicate that screening and risk assessment of NODLN in Baltic Sea edible fish and wildlife are required for the protection of consumer's health.
Keywords: Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Disease

Confirmed winter residency of common goldeneye and common merganser in the Northwest Territories - Sirois, Jacques (Blue Jay, 1995)
Keywords: Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Nonbreeding Seasons; Bucephala clangula; Common Goldeneye; Common merganser; Mergus merganser

New findings of trematodes of the superfamily Echinostomatoidea Looss, 1899 in birds from the Czech Republic - Sitko, J. (HELMINTHOLOGIA, 2021)
In the Czech Republic, 12 freshly dead birds belonging to four species were examined helminthologically during a period of 2015 - 2019. They were six Caspian gulls Larus cachinnans (Lariformes), three goosanders Mergus merganser (Anseriformes), two common snipes Gallinago gallinago, and one common curlew Numenius arquata (Charadriiformes). Concerning trematodes, five echinostomatoids species were found, namely Aporchis massiliensis (obtained from one positive Caspian gull), Echinoparyphium macrovitellatum (one positive from six Caspian gulls), Echinostoma academica (one positive common curlew), Echinostoma stantschinskii (one positive from two common snipes), and Echinochasmus mergi (one positive from three goosanders). All the five echinostomatoids species represent the first records for the helminth fauna of the Czech Republic; the fl ukes A. massiliensis and E. macrovitellatum are recorded for the first time in the Central Europe or the Europe at all, respectively.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 0 Total Times Cited: 0 Cited Reference Count: 18
Keywords: Anseriformes; Charadriiformes; Echinostomatoidea; flukes; Lariformes

Diplostomum and Ornithodiplostomum scardinii (Diplostomidae, Digenea) species from naturally infected birds (Anatinae) in the Czech Republic and in Poland: morphological, morphometric and ecological features - Sitko, J.; Rzad, I. (Helminthologia, 2014)
The study aimed to describe morphological and morphometric characteristics of species representing the genera Diplostomum Nordmann, 1832 and Ornithodiplostomum Dubois, 1936, originating from naturally infected birds in the Czech Republic and in Poland, and to compare their species richness and the intensity of infection in their avian hosts. Diplostomum mergi Dubois, 1932, D. parviventosum Dubois, 1932, D. phoxini (Faust, 1918), D. pusillum (Dubois, 1928), and Ornithodiplostomum scardinii (Schulman, 1952) were found in the gossander (Mergus merganser). D. parviventosum was found in the velvet scoter (Melanitta fusca). D. pungitii Shigin, 1965 was found in the tufted duck (Aythya fuligula), common eider (Somateria mollissima), common goldeneye (Bucephala clangula), and in the long-tailed duck (Clangula hyemalis). D. spathaceum (Rudolphi, 1819) was found in the mallard (Anas platyrhynchos). Morphology and morphometry of those Diplostomum species from the Czech Republic and from Poland were not analyzed before. The morphological and morphometric description of the adult form of O. scardinii presented in this study has been the first such description of a specimen obtained from a naturally infected bird. The highest intensity of infection was observed in the gossander (D. pusillum and D. mergi). Study results provided new data on the occurrence of the Diplostomum and O. scardinii trematodes in the Czech Republic and in Poland.
Sitko, J. Rzad, I.
Keywords: Common Eider; Melanitta fusca; White-winged Scoter; Clangula hyemalis; Long-tailed Duck; Bucephala clangula; Common Goldeneye; Somateria mollissima; Mergus merganser; Parasites; Common Merganser

Low abundance of king eider nests during low lemming years in Northeast Greenland - Sittler, Benoit; Gilg, Olivier; Berg, Thomas B. (Arctic, 2000)
Long-term surveys on Traill Island (Northeast Greenland) show that numbers of king eider (Somateria spectabilis) nests are correlated with high densities of collared lemming (Dicrostonyx groenlandicus). These observations match other zoological records from this region and agree with similar observations recorded elsewhere for arctic geese. Processes at work may be related to the fact that mammalian predators focus on lemmings when lemming numbers are high, but exert higher predation pressure on other prey at low lemming densities. Predators seem to increase their search effort during such low lemming years, thus increasing the likelihood that they will discover eider nests. This study highlights the importance of studying patterns at the community level in any attempt to interpret cyclic fluctuations in northern ecosystems.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Productivity; King Eider; Somateria spectabilis; Trophic Interactions

Anatomy of the Avian Membrana Nictitans - Sivak, J. G.; Glover, R. F. (Canadian Journal of Zoology, 1986)
The anatomy of the membrana nictitans was examined in the rockhopper penguin (Eudyptes crestatus) and in two ducks, a diver (Mergus cucullatus, hooded merganser) and a nondiver (Anas platyrhynchos, common mallard), by light and transmission microscopy. In general, the nictitans is organized in a manner reminiscent of the cornea, i.e., an external epithelium, an internal endothelium, and a fibrous stromal layer in between. However, it is thinner than the cornea, a fact reflected by the relatively thin stroma. Nictitans organization varies between species and in different regions of the same membrane. The cellular and acelluar components are less organized and not as tightly packed in the nondiver than in the two other species. In addition, portions of the nictitans that would be coincident with the cornea when it is in place in front of the eye are more highly organized in both divers. The anatomy of the leading edge of the nictitans, including the marginal plait, which may help lock the membrane in position, is described.
Keywords: Physiology; Hooded Merganser; Lophodytes cucullatus

Food Choice and Predation Efficiency by Mergansers in Laboratory Tests - Sjoberg, K. (Fauna och Flora Naturhistoriska Riksmuseet, 1975)
Laboratory tests with 2 goosanders (Mergus merganser L.) and 1 red-breasted merganser (M. serrator L.) have shown that the birds have the capacity to select certain favored fish species before others when all are offered together in a small trough devoid of bottom material. However, they only demonstrated this capacity when they were fed prior to the test and then presented a surplus of fish. When not fed before the test for at least 2 h, they picked the nearest and most easily caught specimens. When the same fish species were presented to the mergansers in a stream tank (0.8 .times. 9.5 m) with a bottom material of sand, gravel and stones of different size and with a water level of 0.3 .times. 0.4 m and a velocity of approximately 0.5 m/s, the order of preference from the laboratory tests was not repeated. The opportunity for the birds to catch different species in the stream tank was very much influenced by the behavior of the fish species and their capacity to hide, and in differences in fugitive behavior when discovered by the merganser. Because of the behavioral differences, some species were caught before others even in the stream tank, but these species were not the same as in the laboratory tests. This indicates an opportunistic food seeking behavior, resulting in overrepresentation of some species, not necessarily the preferred species.
Keywords: Behavior; Trophic Interactions; Common merganser; Mergus merganser; Mergus serrator; Red-breasted merganser

Foraging Activity Patterns in the Goosander Mergus-Merganser and the Red-Breasted Merganser Mergus-Serrator in Relation to Patterns of Activity in Their Major Prey Species - Sjoberg, K. (Oecologia (Berlin), 1985)
Diel and seasonal foraging activity patterns of goosanders (Mergus merganser L.) and red-breasted mergansers (M. serrator L.) were studied during the breeding season on the Ricklea River in northern Sweden (64.degree.05'N). In addition, the locomotor activity patterns of their most important prey species, the river lamprey (Lampetra fluviatilis (L.)) and the three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus L.), were recorded. During spring, as mergansers arrived in the breeding area, both species exhibited a bimodal, diurnal pattern of activity with morning and evening peaks. By June (the spawning period for the river lamprey and the migratory period for the three-spined stickleback), goosander activity had shifted to late in the evening. This new activity peak correlated well with the main activity period in the river lamprey. Red-breasted mergansers remained predominantly diurnal throughut the observation period. Their diurnal activity correlated with the activity of their major prey, the three-spined stickleback. Both merganser species utilize a specialized foraging technique, i.e. probing the river-bottom with the bill, to catch hiding fish more or less at random. This behaviour probable helps them to forage during the relatively bright summer nights and thus prey upon the abundant nocturnal river lamprey. The goosander preys upon the river lamprey to a greater extent than does the red-breasted merganser, thus leading to a temporal segration in food source utilization between the two duck species.
Keywords: Behavior; Breeding Season; Trophic Interactions; Common merganser; Mergus merganser; Mergus serrator; Red-breasted merganser

Food Selection Food-Seeking Patterns and Hunting Success of Captive Goosanders Mergus-Merganser and Red-Breasted Mergansers Mergus-Serrator in Relation to the Behavior of Their Prey - Sjoberg, K. (Ibis, 1988)
Food selection and food-seeking behaviour of hand-raised Goosanders Mergus merganser and Red-breasted Mergansers M. serrator were tested in experimental situations. When different combinations of two species of fish were presented simultaneously to hungry birds in a small trough where the prey was easily and equally available, neither duck species showed any preferences in prey selection. However, when these same fish species were presented to satiated birds, they showed definite preferences; the most preferred species were baltic salmon and brown trout followed in decreasing order by minnow, whitefish, sculpin, burbot and river lamprey. This was also the case when combinations of five to seven species were presented. However, under semi-natural conditions in a stream tank, the number of each species of fish caught was related to their escape behaviour, not to the previously determined predator preferences. When salmon and minnows of different size were presented to hungry birds, they selected the larger fish regardless of species. In contrast, when satiated, they preferred small fish over large fish. Under the experimental conditions, the use of certain elements of foraging behaviour clearly differed between the two bird species: Mergus serrator spent more time hunting underwater than did M. merganser. Results are discussed in relation to the predator-prey situation existing under natural conditions in northern Swedish rivers.
Keywords: Behavior; Trophic Interactions; Common merganser; Mergus merganser; Mergus serrator; Red-breasted merganser

Time-Related Predator-Prey Interactions between Birds and Fish in a Northern Swedish River - Sjoberg, K. (Oecologia (Berlin), 1989)
Seasonal and diel activity patterns of mergansers, gulls, and terns along a river in northern Sweden were documented, as were those of their fish prey. The seasonal and diel activity patterns of goosanders Mergus merganser and gulls (Larus canus, L. argentatus, and L. fuscus) were closely related to that of the river lamprey Lampetra fluviatilis. During the peak spawning of the river lamprey, birds showed a nocturnal peak in fishing activity. During the summer solstice, birds were active for 24 h. The activity patterns of red-breasted merganser Mergus serrator terns Sterna spp., and three-spined sticklebacks Gasterosteus aculeatus were also similar. Activity pattern of the prey apparently influenced breeding time, diel activity and foraging area of the two Mergus species. Social relations between gulls probably coordinated their peak in fishing, which coincided with the time lampreys were most efficiently exploited.
Keywords: Behavior; Trophic Interactions; Common merganser; Mergus merganser; Mergus serrator; Red-breasted merganser

Effect of round goby (Neogobius melanostomus) invasion on blue mussel (Mytilus edulis trossulus) population and winter diet of the long-tailed duck (Clangula hyemalis) - Skabeikis, A.; Morkune, R.; Bacevicius, E.; Lesutiene, J.; Morkunas, J.; Poskiene, A.; Siaulys, A. (BIOLOGICAL INVASIONS, 2019)
The invasive round goby has established a viable population within 9years of its first introduction to Lithuanian coastal waters (SE Baltic Sea). During its expansion phase, abundances increased 23-fold, which led to the near complete eradication of its main prey, the blue mussel, at <20m depth. The round goby population showed a stabilizing trend after blue mussel biomass was depleted; however, their abundance has not declined. The round goby feeds efficiently on newly settled mollusks, causing a severe constraint for blue mussel recovery. Changes in blue mussel availability and size structure induced a dietary shift in wintering long-tailed duck towards fish prey. An energetically dense food source sustains a good body condition in long-tailed ducks, however the change in trophic position (from 3.1 to 4.3 trophic level) suggests the potential for a reduction in their carrying capacity. Results from this study also show that coastal habitats with low and unpredictable population dynamics of blue mussel become less attractive wintering sites for long-tailed duck in the Baltic Sea. We also document a cascading effect of invasive species in the food web.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 19 Total Times Cited: 20 Cited Reference Count: 0
Keywords: Marine protected area; Resource competition; Trophic level

Causes of mortality in sea ducks (Mergini) necropsied at the USGS-National Wildlife Health Center - Skerratt, Lee F.; Franson, J. Christian; Meteyer, Carol U.; Hollmen, Tuula E. (Waterbirds, 2005)
A number of factors were identified as causes of mortality in 254 (59%) of 431 sea ducks Submitted for necropsy at the USGS-National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, Wisconsin from 1975 until 2003. Bacteria causing large outbreaks of mortality were Pasteurella multocida and Clostridium botulinum Type E. Starvation was responsible for large mortality events as well as sporadic deaths of individuals. Lead toxicity, gunshot and exposure to petroleum were important anthropogenic factors. Other factors that caused mortality were avian pox virus, bacteria (Clostridium botulinum Type C, Riemerella analipestifer and Clostridium perfringens), fungi (Aspergillus fumigatus and an unidentified fungus), protozoans (unidentified coccidia), nematodes (Eustrongylides spp.), trematodes (Sphaoidiotrema globulus and Schistosoma spp.), acanthocephalans (Polymorphus spp.), predation, cyanide and trauma (probably due to collisions). There were also a number of novel infectious organisms in free-living sea ducks in North America, which were incidental to the death, including avipoxvirus and reovirus, bacteria Alycobacterium avium, protozoans Sarcocystis sp. and nematodes Streptocara sp. Apart from anthropogenic factors, the other important mortality factors listed here have not been studied as possible causes for the decline of sea ducks in North America.
Keywords: Sea Ducks - General; Disease; Parasites

Association of helminth infections and food consumption in common eiders Somateria mollissima in Iceland - Skirnisson, K. (Journal of Sea Research, 2015)
Common eider Somateria mollissima L. 1758, subsp. borealis, is widely distributed along the coasts of Iceland. In this study association of parasite infections and food composition was studied among 40 females and 38 males (66 adults, 12 subadults), shot under license on four occasions within the same year (February; before egg-laying in May; after the breeding period in late June; and in November) in Skerjafjorour, SW Iceland. Parasitological examinations revealed 31 helminth species (11 digeneans, ten cestodes, seven nematodes, and three acanthocephalans). Distinct digenean species parasitized the gallbladder, kidney and bursa of Fabricius, whereas other helminths parasitized the gastrointestinal tract. Thirty-six invertebrate prey species were identified as food; waste and bread fed by humans, were also consumed by some birds. Amidostomum acutum was the only parasite found with a direct life cycle, whereas other species were food transmitted and ingested with different invertebrate prey. Opposite to females male birds rarely utilized periwinkles and gammarids as a food source. As a result, Microphallus and Microsomacanthus infection intensities were low except in February, when subadult males were responsible for an infection peak. Females caring for young increased their consumption of periwinkles close to the littoral zone in June; during pre-breeding, females also increased their gammarid intake. As a consequence, Microphallus and Microsomacanthus infection intensities temporarily peaked. Increased food intake (including Mytilus edulis) of females before the egg-laying period resulted in twofold higher Gymnophallus bursicola infection intensity than observed for males. Profilicollis botulus infection reflected seasonal changes in decapod consumption in both genders. Different life history strategies of males and females, especially before and during the breeding season and caring of young, and during molting in distinct feeding areas in summer, promote differences in consumption of prey-transmitted parasites that result in distinct infection patterns of the genders. (C) 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Skirnisson, Karl
Keywords: Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Parasites

Life cycles and transmission patterns of seabird digeneans in SW Iceland - Skirnisson, Karl; Galaktionov, Kirill V. (Sarsia, 2002)
Flukes (digeneans) are common parasites of seabirds in Arctic and subarctic regions. This study examined the distribution of such parasites in 1998 and 1999 in the intertidal zones of two study areas in SW Iceland (Skerjafjordur and Grindavik) by investigating seven species of littoral snail, Littorina saxatilis, L. obtusata, L. fabalis, Onoba aculeus, Hydrobia ventrosa, Epheria vincta and Nucella lapillus, which are known to be first intermediate hosts of many species of digenean. A total of 2556 snails was collected and the intramolluscan stages of 23 seabird digenean species were identified. The local occurrence and abundance of final hosts, such as gulls, eiders and waders, largely explain prevalence differences in the study areas. Seabird digeneans with life cycles involving two intermediate hosts and one/two free-living larvae are more frequent in the Icelandic localities studied than in coastal areas of northern Europe (Barents Sea, White Sea, northern Norway). This indicates that the environmental conditions in the coastal ecosystem of SW Iceland are favourable for the transmission of complex life cycles. Also, the abundance and diversity of both potential final hosts (birds) and second intermediate hosts (littoral invertebrates and fishes) are considered to contribute to the richness of the digenean fauna of SW Iceland.
Keywords: Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Parasites

A quantitative method for evaluating the importance of marine areas for conservation of birds - Skov, Henrik; Durinck, Jan; Leopold, Mardik F.; Tasker, Mark L. (Biological Conservation, 2007)
Objective criteria are needed for ranking marine sites when examining candidate areas for protection measures. We suggest a Marine Classification Criterion (MCC) which allows the application of the widely used Ramsar 1% criterion for wetlands for seabirds with clustered distribution in offshore habitats. The maximum size of an area considered to be internationally important has not been defined by the Ramsar Convention. Terrestrial and coastal sites generally have obvious hydrological or physical boundaries, whereas such boundaries are less obvious at sea. The smallest unit which would pass the demands set by the MCC is 1% of the bio-geographic population of a particular species concentrated in an area (site) supporting a density exceeding a value equivalent of four times the average density of the species in the investigated regional sea. The effect of choosing smaller or larger reference densities is tested. The results indicate that the chosen threshold density is a suitable requirement for the inclusion of the most important areas for seabird species with at least 25% of their bio-geographic population occurring in the studied regions of the North Sea and the Baltic Sea. The test cases indicate that provided the MCC is based on geo-statistical analyses of un-biased survey data the boundaries of areas holding large concentrations of seabirds can be estimated with confidence. The MCC could be used to identify concentrations of seabirds and other marine animals of conservation priority and to rank marine areas by their cumulative importance to different species. (C) 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Conservation; Sea Ducks - General

Food web responses to eutrophication control in a coastal area of the Baltic Sea - Skov, H.; Rasmussen, E. K.; Kotta, J.; Middelboe, A. L.; Uhrenholdt, T.; Zydelis, R. (ECOLOGICAL MODELLING, 2020)
With successful mitigation of eutrophication and the reductions in nutrient concentrations and productivity of coastal waters, the targets set in nature protection legislation in the EU and the United States may no longer be achievable in regions where key ecological functions are coupled to benthic productivity. Yet, due to both the patchiness of invertebrate distribution and the fragmented and non-integrated nature of monitoring data direct coupling between nutrients, productivity and predators has proven difficult to achieve. As a result, assessments of the status of food webs based solely on monitoring data remains an almost impossible task. The aim of this modelling study was to test the application of fine-scale ecosystem models for assessing cost-benefits or food-web consequences of management decisions in relation to water quality of coastal waters. We applied a fine-scale ecosystem model calibrated against measurements in a coastal area in the Baltic Sea to quantify responses in higher trophic levels to changes in eutrophication over a 18-year period, 1990-2007. The resulting spatiotemporal trends reveal a number of characteristic responses and spatial dimensions in coastal food webs. The coupled hydrodynamic, bio-geochemical and waterbird energetics modules indicated nutrient-related changes and fine-scale covariance patterns across all trophic levels. A 50 % decline in bivalve biomass was predicted in a zone characterised by the overall highest biomass of bivalves and highest densities of bivalve-feeding waterbirds. The nutrient-driven local decline in productivity affected the entire food web with a predicted annual mortality of 72,000 Long-tailed Ducks Clangula hyemalis. This model-based study suggests a strong nutrient control of the available food supply to bivalve-feeding birds in coastal areas. Our results also show that high-resolution ecosystem models are required to resolve the heterogeneous distribution of effects.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 2 Total Times Cited: 2 Cited Reference Count: 35
Keywords: DUCKS; COSTS; Aquatic birds; Coastal ecosystems; Ecological modelling; Eutrophication; Food webs; GULF; Macrobenthos

Bioaccumulation of polonium Po-210 in marine birds - Skwarzec, B.; Fabisiak, J. (Journal of Environmental Radioactivity, 2007)
The aim of this work was to determine the Po-210 content in marine birds which permanently or temporally live in the Polish part of the Baltic Sea. We chose 11 species of sea birds: three species permanently residing at southern Baltic Sea, four species of wintering birds and three species of migrating birds. The results show that the polonium is non-uniformly distributed in the marine birds. The highest activities of Po-210 were observed in feathers, muscles and liver and the lowest in skin and skeleton. Species of birds that eat crustaceans, molluscs, fish and plants (long-tailed duck Clangula hyemalis, white-winged scoter Melanitta fitsca) accumulated more polonium than species that eat mainly fish (great cormorant Phalacrocorar carbo, common guillemot Uria aalge) or plants (tufted duck Aythya fuligula). Moreover, about 63% of the Po-210 that was located in feathers of razorbil (Alca torda) and long-tailed duck (C. hyenralis) was apparently adsorbed, suggesting an external source such as the air. It means that the adsorption of Po-210 on the feather surface may be an important transfer from air to water. (c) 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Melanitta fusca; Nonbreeding Seasons; White-winged Scoter; Clangula hyemalis; Long-tailed Duck; Contaminants

Annual survival in female white-winged scoters and lesser scaup - Slattery, S. M.; Clark, R. G. (JOURNAL OF WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT, 2019)
Quantifying survival and understanding underlying sources of variation are important for developing population models and informing management decisions. We estimated apparent survival (i.e., true survival less permanent emigration) for adult female white-winged scoters (Melanitta fusca) and lesser scaup (Aythya affinis) breeding at a northern boreal forest site in western Canada, 2002-2008. We also evaluated variation in survival relative to indices of breeding status, individual quality, spring weather conditions, local small-mammal abundance, and overwinter climate. Breeding female scoters had higher apparent survival than did nonbreeding females, suggesting that breeders had higher survival or fidelity to the study area, or that more nonbreeders were transient birds that may have bred elsewhere in subsequent years. Apparent survival rate for breeding female scoters was unrelated to other individual and environmental covariates. Nest-trapped female scaup had higher apparent survival rates than did prenesting females captured in decoy traps, implying that more pre-nesters dispersed permanently or died after marking. Nesting female scaup with higher body condition or those in years when small mammals were more abundant had higher apparent survival; associations between survival and other environmental covariates were less certain. Overall, apparent survival rate of breeding adult female scoters was lower than reported for scoters from other North American locations or for other sea duck species, whereas estimates for nesting female scaup were comparable with those from other boreal and prairie-parkland locations. Our results indicate that for scaup in this region, factors influencing female body condition, such as maintaining high-quality habitat, areas with abundant food or low disturbance, could improve annual survival. (c) The Wildlife Society, 2019
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 1 Total Times Cited: 1 Cited Reference Count: 89
Keywords: POPULATION-DYNAMICS; AYTHYA-AFFINIS; RADIO TRANSMITTERS; white-winged scoter; HABITAT SELECTION; individual quality; weather; apparent annual survival; BODY-SIZE; BOREAL FOREST; BREEDING-SEASON SURVIVAL; climate cycles; EYE COLOR; lesser scaup; Northwest Territories; small mammals; YOLK PRECURSOR DYNAMICS; YUKON FLATS

Using Land-based Surveys to Assess Sea Duck Abundance and Behavior in Nearshore Waters of Southern New England, USA - Smith, A. D.; McWilliams, S. R.; Winiarski, K. J.; Trocki, C. L.; Harris, B.; Osenkowski, J. E.; Paton, P. W. C. (Waterbirds, 2015)
Nearshore waters provide very important habitat for sea ducks (Tribe Mergini) during migration and winter, but gathering information on sea duck use of shallow nearshore waters is challenging because traditional aerial and boat-based surveys are expensive, are usually conducted infrequently, and are often not feasible near the coast. The objective of this study was to use land-based surveys to characterize spatiotemporal variation in the abundance and behavior (e.g., foraging, flying) of Common Eider (Somateria mollissima) and scoters (Melanitta spp.) in nearshore waters of southern New England. Surveys (60-120 min per survey, n = 1,044 surveys) were conducted throughout the day from February 2009 to July 2010 to assess diurnal and seasonal variation in sea duck behavior and spatial distribution at nine sites in southern Rhode Island. The density of sea ducks resting or foraging on the water exhibited little diurnal variation, whereas flight activity dramatically increased nearer to sunrise. Sea duck densities and passage rates (individuals/km(2)/hr) peaked during migration periods from October through November and February through April, although there were important seasonal differences between sites. For example, the highest densities of Common Eider during fall were in a protected estuary, whereas abundance of scoters during fall was greater at a coastal headland. The relative activity of Common Eider on the water and in flight was similar among sites, whereas scoters exhibited highly variable activity among sites, particularly during winter and spring. The spatiotemporal patterns in abundance and behavior of sea ducks in nearshore waters that we detected using land-based surveys provides essential, complementary information to that available from other types of waterfowl and seabird surveys in southern New England.
Smith, Adam D. McWilliams, Scott R. Winiarski, Kristopher J. Trocki, Carol L. Harris, Brian Osenkowski, Jason E. Paton, Peter W. C.
Keywords: Behavior; Common Eider; Melanitta fusca; White-winged Scoter; Melanitta perspicillata; Surf Scoter; Migration; Somateria mollissima; Techniques; Black Scoter; Abundance, Distribution, & Trends; Nonbreeding season; Melanitta americana

A clutch and brood survival model that discriminates random and correlated mortality - Smith, Barry D.; Boyd, W. Sean; Evans, Matthew R. (Ecological Applications, 2005)
Quantitative conservation methodologies such as Population Viability Analysis (PVA) require reliable estimates of life history parameters such as breeding success. The utility of such metrics for egg-laying species is complicated by the fact that the mortality of eggs and juveniles can occur both randomly and independently over time,. or catastrophically, as in the sudden loss of a clutch or brood. Not knowing the nature of mortality caused by either or both of abiotic (e.g., weather) and biotic (e.g., predation) events limits our. ability to confidently assess a population's demography and. sustainability, or rank competing hypotheses. To address this deficiency, we describe a statistical model that estimates egg and juvenile survival rates continuously from laying to fledging based on periodic observations of individual clutches and broods. Adjunct data on environmental or predation threats can be included in the model as covariate series potentially affecting juvenile survival. Our model can statistically characterize mortality between the extremes of random and catastrophic mortality and can determine if unwitnessed mortalities occurred independently or were correlated (i.e., overdispersed, where catastrophe is extreme overdispersion). Overdispersion is estimated as a parameter of the beta-binomial probability distribution of survival. outcomes, which differs from its treatment in Program MARK where overdispersion is an a posteriori diagnostic referred to as e. We used data for the sea duck Barrow's Goldeneye to illustrate our model. Specifically, we contribute to the argument that a larger brood confers a fitness advantage to a tending hen by concluding that brood size on hatch day is positively correlated with a juvenile's probability of surviving to fledge.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Population Dynamics; Survival; Techniques; Barrow's Goldeneye; Bucephala islandica

Ageing Harlequin Duck Histrionicus histrionicus drakes using plumage characteristics - Smith, Cyndi; Cooke, Fred; Goudie, R. Ian (Wildfowl, 1999)
Most ducks (Subfamily Anatinae) progress through a sequence of moults from natal downy plumage to definitive alternate plumage. The accurate identification of age classes by plumage allows the proportion of immature males to adult males in the autumn and winter populations to be used as an index of recruitment and to determine age-specific mortality. By observing Harlequin Ducks (tribe Mergini) that were banded as ducklings on streams in North America we show that males are distinguishable in the autumn of the hatch year. The Alternate I plumage is variable and could result from differences of up to 10 weeks in hatch date, or could reflect the physical condition of individual birds. We also show that males attain definitive alternate plumage after the pre-alternate moult in the second calendar year. These plumage characteristics are useful both in the field and in working with specimens.
Keywords: Nonbreeding Seasons; Harlequin duck; Histrionicus histrionicus; Techniques

Long-term pair bonds in Harlequin Ducks - Smith, Cyndi M.; Cooke, Fred; Robertson, Gregory J.; Goudie, R. Ian; Boyd, W. Sean (Condor, 2000)
We documented the frequency of pair reunion in Harlequin Ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus) on breeding streams in Alberta, and at a molting/wintering area in southwestern British Columbia. As long as their mate is alive, Harlequin Duck pairs reunite on the wintering area and return to the breeding stream together. Pairs reunite even if the female is unsuccessful at breeding the previous season, which suggests that reuniting with the same mate year after year is important. Some males that have lost their mate and fail to re-pair on the wintering area show fidelity to their former breeding site.
Keywords: Behavior; Breeding Season; Nonbreeding Seasons; Harlequin duck; Histrionicus histrionicus

Winter age ratios and the assessment of recruitment of Harlequin Ducks - Smith, Cyndi M.; Goudie, R. Ian; Cooke, Fred (Waterbirds, 2001)
Recruitment is the process by which young birds are added to the breeding population. The two most commonly used methods to estimate recruitment in ducks are pair/brood counts, and fall age ratios based on wings returned by hunters. Direct counts on the wintering area to determine the proportion of young males to adult males (age ratios), can be used for species with delayed plumage maturation. This is useful for species that are difficult to study on the breeding grounds and are seldom hunted, such as Harlequin Ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus). Such an approach is only valid if age classes are equally sampled. Between 1994 and 1999, the proportion of male Harlequin Ducks that were immatures in the Strait of Georgia, British Columbia, was estimated at 0.068. The proportions differed across years. Little difference occurred through the winter months until spring, when there was a significant increase in proportions in March. If these age ratios are accurate, then recruitment would not be compensating for annual adult mortality and the population could have been declining during the period of our study. However, if immature males are not distributed evenly among the population, then our assessment may underestimate or overestimate proportions. Delayed breeding means that immature birds experience several additional seasons of mortality prior to breeding, and thus the actual recruitment rate into the breeding population would be lower than that presented here.
Keywords: Nonbreeding Seasons; Harlequin duck; Histrionicus histrionicus; Productivity; Techniques

A Mist-Net Method for Capturing Harlequin Ducks on Rivers - Smith, C. M.; Trimper, P. G.; Bate, L. J.; Brodeur, S.; Hansen, W. K.; Robert, M. (Wildlife Society Bulletin, 2015)
Many sea ducks are captured during wing molt at intertidal areas; however, to study the breeding ecology of some species, researchers need to capture them on streams and rivers, which are often flowing with high water. In fast-flowing and deep water, wading streams during net set-up and extraction of birds is impossible to complete safely. Between 1995 and 2013, we captured 720 adult and 241 hatch-year harlequin ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus) on 37 streams in eastern and western North America. We used a mist net extended across the stream with modified riggings that allowed above-water retrieval of captured birds without technicians entering the stream. This method can be used across deep, fast water that is not wadable; requires equipment that is compact and easily transported; is suitable for remote areas; can be operated by a crew of 4-6 people; and has a low risk of injury to the birds. Care must be taken when using this method to capture large numbers of ducks simultaneously because it becomes difficult to keep the birds above the fast water. This capture method could be used for other ducks, and with different mesh sizes could also be used for other birds, such as American dippers (Cinclus americanus) and spotted sandpipers (Actitis macularius), at these inland locations. The mobility of this capture method means that species and individuals that are not of interest can be avoided by orienting the net to a horizontal position to allow non-target species to pass by unhindered. (C) 2015 The Wildlife Society.
Smith, Cyndi M. Trimper, Perry G. Bate, Lisa J. Brodeur, Serge Hansen, Warren K. Robert, Michel
Keywords: Breeding Season; Histrionicus histrionicus; Techniques; Harlequin Duck

Effect of Diving Ducks on Benthic Food Resources During Winter in South Carolina USA - Smith, L. M.; Vangilder, L. D.; Hoppe, R. T.; Morreale, S. J.; Brisbin, I. L. Jr (Wildfowl, 1986)
The effect of diving duck predation on benthic macroinvertebrate numbers and biomass was investigated with the use of exclosures, during winter 1983-84, in a South Carolina reservoir. The relationship of food quality with increasing water depth was also studied. The most numerous waterfowl species occurring that feed on benthic invertebrates were Lesser Scaup Aythya affinis, Ring-necked Duck A. collaris, Bufflehead Bucephala albeola, and Ruddy Duck Oxyura jamaicensis. Birds reached peak numbers in early January, and departed in late March. Waterfowl had litle overall impact on benthic macroinvertebrate biomass and numbers during winter except for clams (Corbiculidae). For most invertebrate taxa, deeper waters did not contain richer food supplies when compared with shallow waters. A hypothesized relationship of food quality and water depth may not play an important role in the habitat segregation of male and female diving ducks.
Keywords: Nonbreeding Seasons; Trophic Interactions; Bucephala albeola; Bufflehead

Exposure to cumulative stressors affects the laying phenology and incubation behaviour of an Arctic-breeding marine bird - Smith, R. A.; Albonaimi, S. S.; Hennin, H. L.; Gilchrist, H. G.; Fort, J.; Parkinson, K. J. L.; Provencher, J. F.; Love, O. P. (SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT, 2022)
Wildlife are exposed to multiple stressors across life-history stages, the effects of which can be amplified as human activity surges globally. In Arctic regions, increasing air and ocean temperatures, more severe weather systems, and exposure to environmental contaminants all represent stressors occurring simultaneously. While Arctic vertebrates, including marine birds, are expected to be at risk of adverse effects from these individual stressors, few studies have researched their combined impacts on breeding behaviour and reproductive success. The interactive effects of environmental conditions and mercury (Hg) contamination on laying phenology and incubation behaviour were examined in female common eiders (Somateria mollissima, mitiq, (sic)) nesting at Canada's largest Arctic breeding colony. Conditions with higher pre-breeding air temperatures were linked to females with higher egg Hg concentrations laying earlier than those with lower Hg values. Furthermore, examination of a total of 190 days of incubation behaviour from 61 eiders across two years revealed a negative relationship between wind speed and the frequency of incubation interruptions. Importantly, exposure to higher air temperatures combined with lower Hg concentrations was significantly correlated with increased incubation interruptions. Although previous research has shown that warmer spring temperatures could afford lower quality females more time to improve body condition to successfully lay, results suggest these females may face stronger cumulative fitness costs during incubation in warmer years, potentially in combination with the effects of Hg on physiological stress and hormone secretion. This study highlights how multiple stressors exposure, driven by human-induced environmental changes, can have a complex influence on reproduction. (c) 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 3 Total Times Cited: 3 Cited Reference Count: 109
Keywords: Climate change; Physiology; CLUTCH SIZE; COMMON EIDERS; CLIMATE-CHANGE; SOMATERIA-MOLLISSIMA; Common eider; Multiple stressors; Mercury; INDIVIDUAL OPTIMIZATION; ICE CONDITIONS; FEMALE EIDERS; EGG-SIZE; HUMORAL IMMUNITY; MERCURY EXPOSURE

Environmental and life-history factors influence inter-colony multidimensional niche metrics of a breeding Arctic marine bird - Smith, R. A.; Yurkowski, D. J.; Parkinson, K. J. L.; Fort, J.; Hennin, H. L.; Gilchrist, H. G.; Hobson, K. A.; Mallory, M. L.; Danielsen, J.; Garbus, S. E.; Hanssen, S. A.; Jonsson, J. E.; et al. (SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT, 2021)
Human industrialization has resulted in rapid climate change, leading to wide-scale environmental shifts. These shifts can modify food web dynamics by altering the abundance and distribution of primary producers (ice algae and phytoplankton), as well as animals at higher trophic levels. Methylmercury (MeHg) is a neuro-endocrine disrupting compound which biomagnifies in animals as a function of prey choice, and as such bioavailability is affected by altered food web dynamics and adds an important risk-based dimension in studies of foraging ecology. Multidimensional niche dynamics (MDND; delta C-13, delta N-15, THg; total mercury) were determined among breeding common eider (Somateria mollissima) ducks sampled from 10 breeding colonies distributed across the circumpolar Arctic and subarctic. Results showed high variation in MDND among colonies as indicated by niche size and ranges in delta C-13, delta N-15 and THg values in relation to spatial differences in primary production inferred from sea-ice presence and colony migratory status. Colonies with higher sea-ice cover during the pre-incubation period had higher median colony THg, delta N-15, and delta C-13. Individuals at migratory colonies had relatively higher THg and delta N-15, and lower delta C-13, suggesting a higher trophic position and a greater reliance on phytoplankton-based prey. It was concluded that variation in MDND exists among eider colonies which influenced individual blood THg concentrations. Further exploration of spatial ecotoxicology and MDND at each individual site is important to examine the relationships between anthropogenic activities, foraging behaviour, and the related risks of contaminant exposure at even low, sub-lethal concentrations that may contribute to deleterious effects on population stability over time. Overall, multidimensional niche analysis that incorporates multiple isotopic and contaminant metrics could help identify those populations at risk to rapidly altered food web dynamics. (C) 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 4 Total Times Cited: 4 Cited Reference Count: 163
Keywords: Climate change; COMMON EIDERS; CLIMATE-CHANGE; PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS; SOMATERIA-MOLLISSIMA; Common eider; Stable isotopes; SEA-ICE; MERCURY CONCENTRATIONS; TROPHIC RELATIONSHIPS; Carbon-13; FOOD-WEB STRUCTURE; INDIVIDUAL SPECIALIZATION; Nitrogen-15; STABLE-ISOTOPE SIGNATURES; THg

Salmonella in California wildlife species: Prevalence in rehabilitation centers and characterization of isolates - Smith, Woutrina A.; Mazet, Jonna A. K.; Hirsh, Dwight C. (Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 2002)
Fecal samples from 212 selected marine mammals, marine birds, and raptors were cultured for Salmonella spp. on arrival at rehabilitation centers in California from May 1999 through July 2000. Salmonella spp. were cultured from nine (4%) animals, and seven serotypes were isolated: Johannesberg, Montevideo, Newport, Ohio, Saint Paul, Enteritidis Group D, and 4,5,12:1 Monophasic. One western gull (Larus occidentalis) had two serotypes. Antibiotic susceptibilities and chromosomal fingerprints were evaluated for Salmonella isolates. Some isolates were resistant to gentamicin, amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, and ampicillin. Chromosomal fingerprints with XbaI and XhoI restriction enzymes differed between serotypes but not between individuals carrying the same serotype of Salmonella.
Keywords: Sea Ducks - General; Disease

Moulting common eiders devoured by killer whales - Smith, William E. (British Birds, 2006)
Keywords: Common Eider; Nonbreeding Seasons; Molt; Somateria mollissima; Trophic Interactions

Underwater Flight of Long-Tailed Duck Oldsquaw Clangula-Hyemalis - Snell, R. R. (Ibis, 1985)
Keywords: Behavior; Clangula hyemalis; Long-tailed Duck

Assessing western gull predation on purple sea urchins in the rocky intertidal using optimal foraging theory - Snellen, C. L.; Hodum, P. J.; Fernandez-Juricic, E. (Canadian Journal of Zoology-Revue Canadienne De Zoologie, 2007)
Snellen, C. L. Hodum, P. J. Fernandez-Juricic, E.

Capturing Common Eiders by Night-Lighting in Coastal Maine USA - Snow, W. D.; Mendall, H. L.; Krohn, W. B. (Journal of Field Ornithology, 1990)
From 1970 to 1973, 762 Common Eiders (Somateria mollissima) were captured by night-lighting from boats in the shoal waters of outer Penobscot Bay, Maine. An average of 38 eiders were banded per night (range: 4-141), with 95% of the birds being flightless young and the remainder adults or subadults. Eiders were most readily captured on calm, dark nights. Ducklings 2-6 weeks of age were to capture than older young and adults. More female than male ducklings were banded in three of the four years with an overall that some young eiders moved east from Maine to southeastern Nova Scotia in late summer or early fall. Total recoveries (n = 52) suggest that Maine eiders winter in coastal Maine or migrate south to Massachusetts, while others winter in Nova Scotia.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Techniques

Long-tailed Duck (Clangula hyemalis) ecology: insights from the Russian literature. Part 1: Asian part of the Russian breeding range - Sokolov, V.; Vardeh, S.; Quillfeldt, P. (POLAR BIOLOGY, 2019)
Long-tailed Ducks (Clangula hyemalis) nest in tundra habitats and are marine birds outside of the breeding season. These sea ducks are subject to negative impacts and threats throughout their annual cycle, and the population wintering in the Baltic Sea has declined dramatically in recent decades. To understand their life history and the drivers of population decreases, the ecology of Long-tailed Ducks needs to be understood in their breeding and wintering habitats. Most of the birds wintering in the Baltic Sea breed in northern Russia. Here, we reviewed the Russian literature on the Long-tailed Duck in the Asian part of the Russian breeding range (from Yamal to North East), with respect to their distribution, density, breeding and feeding biology. We summarized information from 74 Russian sources, with a strong representation of field surveys and ecological studies in the 1970s and 1980s. The data show a comparable overall breeding biology and timing within the area and compared to the European part of the breeding range. Considerable differences in the densities between sites and years were observed, but the underlying drivers of these differences are not yet understood. Overall, the proportions of non-breeding birds were high in most reports, but further studies are needed to understand the potential impact of changes in the breeding habitat on population trends. The data summarized here provide a comprehensive database for carrying out repeat surveys and ecological studies to improve understanding of population trends and their underlying ecological basis.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 2 Total Times Cited: 3 Cited Reference Count: 84
Keywords: Clangula hyemalis; Long-tailed Duck; Arctic; Russia

Annual variation in waterbird clutch initiation date in relation to spring thaw in Arctic Russia - Solovyeva, D.; Barykina, D. A.; Prokopenko, O. D.; Balsby, T. J. S.; Fox, A. D. (INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BIOMETEOROLOGY, 2022)
To test for the degree of species-specific variation in clutch initiation date in relation to spring thaw, we recorded first egg dates in 1433 nests of seven large bodied long-distance migratory waterbird species breeding on Ayopechan Island in the Chaun Delta, Chukotka, in the Russian Arctic during 2002-2020. Pacific Loon Gavia pacifica, Sandhill Crane Grus canadensis and Glaucous Gull Larus hyperboreus all adjusted timing of clutch initiation completely to annual variation in first frost-free dates. First egg dates of Spectacled Eider Somateria fischeri also significantly advanced in warmer springs, but the rate of change was significantly less than unity, implying a reduced capacity to accommodate change in vernal thaw that may not be able to keep up with greater change in the future. Long-tailed Duck Clangula hyemalis and Vega Gull Larus vegae showed a tendency for earlier first egg dates in years with earlier first frost-free date, but for both species, the relationship failed to reach statistical significance. Bewick's Swan Cygnus columbianus showed almost no change in mean first egg date across the observed variation in first frost-free dates. Based on these data, we suggest that while all seven species showed signs of plasticity in their timing of onset of breeding, Pacific Loon, Sandhill Crane and Glaucous Gull showed greater adaptability to adjust the timing of their breeding season to recent variation in spring thaw than the other four species studied here over this period.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 0 Total Times Cited: 0 Cited Reference Count: 48
Keywords: BIRDS; Climate change; CLIMATE-CHANGE; SIZE; POPULATION; REPRODUCTION; SUCCESS; ARRIVAL DATE; ADVANCEMENT; Ayopechan Island; Chaun River Delta; Chukotka; First egg date; First frost-free date; SNOW MELT; WESTERN CHUKOTKA

Testing for Geographic Variation in Survival of Spectacled Eider (Somateria fischeri) Populations in Chukotka, Russia and the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, Alaska - Solovyeva, D. V.; Kokhanova, V. Y.; Gabrielson, M.; Christie, K. S. (ARCTIC, 2017)
Information on variation in survival among geographically distinct breeding populations can produce valuable insights about the population dynamics of a species. The Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta sub-population of Spectacled Eiders in Alaska decreased precipitously between the 1950s and 1990s. Causes for this decline are unknown but may be attributed to low female survival due to predation and lead exposure on the breeding grounds. From 2014 to 2015, we compared annual survival probabilities of Spectacled Eiders on Kigigak Island in the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, Alaska, and Ayopechan Island in the Chaun Delta, Chukotka, where similar field protocols were implemented. A Cormack-Jolly-Seber maximum likelihood approach was used to estimate apparent survival (phi) and recapture probability (p) from mark-resight data. We tested a) whether Russian and Alaskan sub-populations differed in their survival rates, b) whether survival varied annually, and c) whether survival followed an increasing or decreasing trend over time at either site. We found no evidence for differing survival between the two breeding areas when mean survival across years was compared, and we did not find strong evidence for a linear trend in survival over time at either site. Furthermore, our data supported models with annually varying survival at Kigigak Island and constant survival at Ayopechan Island. Sample size constraints precluded estimates of annual survival at Ayopechan Island. Our finding of no difference in mean survival between sites lends support to the idea that survival may be a function of conditions on the wintering grounds.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 2 Total Times Cited: 2 Cited Reference Count: 36
Keywords: Somateria fischeri; Spectacled Eider; MARKED ANIMALS; Ayopechan Island; annual survival rate; AT-SEA; Kigigak Island; recapture probabilities

Comparative mitochondrial genetics of North American and Eurasian mergansers with an emphasis on the endangered scaly-sided merganser (Mergus squamatus) - Solovyeva, Diana V.; Pearce, John M. (Conservation Genetics, 2011)
The scaly-sided merganser, Mergus squamatus, is considered one of the most threatened sea duck species in the Palearctic with limited breeding and wintering distribution in China and Russia. To provide information for future conservation efforts, we sequenced a portion of the mitochondrial (mt) DNA control region in four species of mergansers and three additional sea duck taxa to characterize the evolutionary history of the scaly-sided merganser, infer population trends that may have led to its limited geographic distribution, and to compare indices of genetic diversity among species of mergansers. Scaly-sided mergansers exhibit substantially lower levels of mtDNA genetic diversity (h = 0.292, pi = 0.0007) than other closely related sea ducks and many other avian taxa. The four haplotypes observed differed by a single base pair suggesting that the species has not experienced a recent population decline but has instead been at a low population level for some time. A phylogenetic analysis placed the scaly-sided merganser basal to North American and European forms of the common merganser, M. merganser. Our inclusion of a small number of male samples doubled the number of mtDNA haplotypes observed, suggesting that additional genetic variation likely exists within the global population if there is immigration of males from unsampled breeding areas.
Keywords: Taxonomy; Sea Ducks - General

NESTING BIOLOGY OF THE SCALY-SIDED MERGANSER (MERGUS SQUAMATUS, MERGINI, ANATIDAE) IN PRIMORYE, RUSSIA - Solovyeva, D. V.; Vartanyan, S. L. (ZOOLOGICHESKY ZHURNAL, 2019)
The nesting biology of the Scaly-sided merganser (Mergus squamatus) was investigated over 17 years (2001-2017) both in artificial and natural nest sites in Primorye, Far East, Russia. Artificial nest sites of different constructions (boxes and tubes) were provided along fifteen breeding rivers. A total of 205 nests were recorded: 190 nests in artificial sites and 15 in natural cavities. The occupation rate of nest boxes (27.8%) was significantly higher than that of nest tubes (20.2%). Clutch size averaged 11.08 +/- 0.05 (N = 145) eggs. Inter and intraspecific nest parasitism was described, and the effect of parasitism on nest success evaluated. Advanced clutch onset during the study period was significant. Apparent nest success (70.4 +/- 4.0%, a proportion of nests that produced at least one young) was independent of cavity type, with no significant difference noted between artificial and natural sites. The artificial nest program is an effective way to increase the productivity of this endangered species. A total of 1334 ducklings hatched in artificial nest sites during 2002-2017.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 0 Total Times Cited: 0 Cited Reference Count: 22
Keywords: SIZE; POPULATION; clutch size; Mergus squamatus; nest success; artificial nest; HOODED MERGANSERS; nesting phenology; PARASITISM; predators; Primorye; Scaly-sided merganser

Changes in nesting success and breeding abundance of Spectacled Eiders Somateria fischeri in the Chaun Delta, Chukotka, Russia, 2003-2016 - Solovyeva, D. V.; Vartanyan, S. L.; Frederiksen, M.; Fox, A. D. (POLAR BIOLOGY, 2018)
The Spectacled Eider Somateria fischeri is a rare sea duck confined to breeding in the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta and Arctic coasts of Alaska and Russia. Almost nothing is known about its status and breeding biology in the Russian Arctic. Stratified systematic nest searches were conducted annually of Spectacled Eider nests on Ayopechan Island in the Chaun Delta, Arctic Russia during 2003-2016. Mean nest densities were stable during 2003-2009 but declined by 8.0% per annum during 2009-2016. Mean clutch size and annual female survival did not change over the same period, during which time annual nest survival and hatching success declined significantly. A simple three age-class matrix model estimated annual asymptotic population growth rate (lambda) using observed fecundity from the beginning (1.1 hatched chick per female, lambda = 0.864) and end (0.45 hatched chick per female, lambda = 0.828) of the study period. This confirmed that to stabilize this population required three immigrant recruits for every local recruit at the beginning of the study and nine towards the end. Declines in annual nest survival appear correlated with (i) declines in nesting Sabine's Gulls Xema sabini and Arctic Terns Sterna paradisaea with which nesting Spectacled Eiders associated and may have gained protection from predators, and (ii) marginally significant increases in large gull and mammalian predators at the site. Should current trends in nest density and fecundity continue, the survival of this breeding Spectacled Eider population is in jeopardy.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 5 Total Times Cited: 5 Cited Reference Count: 24
Keywords: Egg predators; Glaucous Gull; Hatching success; Nest density; Nest survival; Vega Gull

Nest box reuse in a migrating bird is independent of nest content - Sonerud, G. A. (ORNIS FENNICA, 2021)
Site fidelity after successful nesting is an adaptation to spatially heterogeneous and temporally auto-correlated risk of nest predation. Cavity-nesting common goldeneye (Bucephala clangula) females use this strategy to minimize nest predation from pine marten (Martes martes), but because goldeneyes migrate they may save time when deciding where to nest by relying on information about successful nests gained in the previous year. I tested whether reuse of a nest box where the previous nest was successful is affected by the content. After a goldeneye had successfully nested, I manipulated nest box availability by offering two nest boxes; one in the original nest tree and one in a new tree for the season, each containing either old nest material from the successful nest or new nest material, i.e. wood shavings. The boxes were installed and relocated when goldeneyes were absent from the study area. The manipulation was designed to test whether goldeneyes reuse a cavity based on information conveyed by its current content, or on private or public information gained in the previous nesting season. Goldeneyes consistently reused the box in the original nest tree, independent of box content. Thus, when the information available in the current nesting season conflicted with information acquired in the previous nesting season, the goldeneyes relied on the latter rather than on information that would cost valuable time to update after arrival in spring. The common practice among ornithologists and land managers to clean nest boxes after each nesting would not affect cavity reuse in the goldeneye.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 3 Total Times Cited: 3 Cited Reference Count: 40
Keywords: DUCK; PREDATION RISK; GOLDENEYE; LONG-TERM; SITE SELECTION; MARTEN MARTES-MARTES; BREEDING-HABITAT SELECTION; PINE MARTENS; REDUCED PREDATION; TENGMALMS OWL

Health effects from contaminant exposure in Baltic Sea birds and marine mammals: A review - Sonne, C.; Siebert, U.; Gonnsen, K.; Desforges, J. P.; Eulaers, I.; Persson, S.; Roos, A.; Backlin, B. M.; Kauhala, K.; Olsen, M. T.; Harding, K. C.; Treu, G.; et al. (ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL, 2020)
Here we review contaminant exposure and related health effects in six selected Baltic key species. Sentinel species included are common eider, white-tailed eagle, harbour porpoise, harbour seal, ringed seal and grey seal. The review represents the first attempt of summarizing available information and baseline data for these bio-monitoring key species exposed to industrial hazardous substances focusing on anthropogenic persistent organic pollutants (POPs). There was only limited information available for white-tailed eagles and common eider while extensive information exist on POP exposure and health effects in the four marine mammal species. Here we report organ-tissue endpoints (pathologies) and multiple biomarkers used to evaluate health and exposure of key species to POPs, respectively, over the past several decades during which episodes of significant population declines have been reported. Our review shows that POP exposure affects the reproductive system and survival through immune suppression and endocrine disruption, which have led to population-level effects on seals and white-tailed eagles in the Baltic. It is notable that many legacy contaminants, which have been banned for decades, still appear to affect Baltic wildlife. With respect to common eiders, changes in food composition, quality and contaminant exposure seem to have population effects which need to be investigated further, especially during the incubation period where the birds fast. Since new industrial contaminants continuously leak into the environment, we recommend continued monitoring of them in sentinel species in the Baltic, identifying possible effects linked to climate change, and modelling of population level effects of contaminants and climate change.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 47 Total Times Cited: 48 Cited Reference Count: 79
Keywords: Contaminants; SOMATERIA-MOLLISSIMA; RINGED SEALS; Baltic Sea; MORTALITY EVENT; Persistent organic pollutants; Biological effects; EAGLES HALIAEETUS-ALBICILLA; Exposure; GREY SEALS; HALICHOERUS-GRYPUS; MOLECULAR BIOMARKERS; OCP; Organochlorine pesticides; PATHOLOGICAL FINDINGS; PCBs; PHOCA-VITULINA; Polychlorinated biphenyls; POPs; PORPOISES PHOCOENA-PHOCOENA

Summer occurrence and moult of Black Scoters Melanitta nigra and Velvet Scoters M-fusca on the Oderbank (southers Baltic Sea) - Sonntag, Nicole; Engelhard, Ophelia; Garthe, Stefan (Vogelwelt, 2004)
Ship surveys in the Pomeranian Bight, southern Baltic Sea, revealed an offshore summer occurrence of Black and Velvet Scoters on the Oderbank. Population sizes were estimated to be 110,000 to 220,000 Black Scoters for July to September 2003 and June 2004. In summer 2003 we also observed moulting birds. Their percentage varied between 0.2% (September) and 32% (August) of all Black Scoters. Velvet Scoters were present with about 260 individuals from July to September 2003, including four moulting birds in July, but with only five individuals in total in June 2004. The Oderbank is an important summer and moulting site for Black Scoters and probably the southernmost summer and perhaps even moulting area for Velvet Scoters. A special protection status is required to conserve this unique habitat in the German Baltic Sea.
Keywords: Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Melanitta fusca; Nonbreeding Seasons; White-winged Scoter; Molt; Black Scoter; Melanitta nigra

Distribution of seabirds and waterbirds in the German Baltic Sea throughout the year - Sonntag, Nicole; Mendel, Bettina; Garthe, Stefan (Vogelwarte, 2006)
The German Baltic Sea is a very important area for seabirds and waterbirds. 38 species are regularly found in coastal or offshore waters. Many of them occur in international important concentrations and are subject to various conservation-related conventions and directives, especially the EU Birds Directive and the African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement (AEWA).From 2000 to 2005, several research projects were dedicated to describe and analyse the distribution and abundance of seabirds in the offshore area in the German Baltic Sea at high spatial and temporal resolutions. In this study, we present for the first time the distribution of seabirds and waterbirds in the German Baltic Sea throughout the year, based on transect counts from ships. The main focus is on the offshore areas. For the most numerous species we present the distribution for the four seasons summer, autumn, winter and spring, defined species-specific. The maps clearly show spatial and temporal differences in the distribution of the various species. While Red-breasted Mergansers, Great Crested Grebes or Great Cormorants occur predominantely close to the coast, Red-necked Grebes, Slavonian Grebes and Common Guillemots, among others, prefer offshore-areas. The most numerous and characteristic species are the sea ducks Common Eider, Long-tailed Duck, Common Scoter and Velvet Scoter. They prefer areas with low water depth along the coast or on shallow banks in the offshore area. While Common Eiders occur chiefly in the western parts of the German Baltic Sea, Velvet Scoters are mainly found in the eastern parts. Both species have high densities in the winter half-year but only small numbers during summer. Long-tail Ducks and Common Scoters are distributed over large areas of the German Baltic Sea, but while the former species occurs in the winter, half-year only, the latter species is present throughout the whole year. Gulls are widespread throughout the study area and show only local and/or short-term concentrations. Aggregations are often in the vicinity of high fishing activities. The most frequent gull species is the Herring Gull. Terns occur only in very small numbers in the German Baltic Sea, with Black Terns exhibiting small concentrations in the eastern part during late summer.Species that occur predominantly in coastal areas of the German Baltic Sea are not presented in detail. However, for Mute Swan, Greater Scaup, Common Goldeneye and Goosander we present maps for the winter half-year (October-April), as the nearshore distribution of these species sometimes extent into offshore areas. For species occuring only seldom within the study area we present a list with the total number of individuals seen during the surveys. Coastal or migrating waterbird species are only named. Together with previously published information on the distribution of seabirds and waterbirds in the German Baltic Sea, available mainly for the winter and spring periods, this study gives a comprehensive overview about the spatial and temporal distribution of the most numerous and widespread seabirds and waterbirds in the German Baltic Sea. In addition, current population estimates of these species are given for the recently designated Special Protection Area "Pommersche Bucht" in the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of the eastern part of the German Baltic Sea.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Sea Ducks - General; Nonbreeding Seasons; Habitat

Temporal variation in genetic structure within the threatened spectacled eider - Sonsthagen, S.; Haughey, C.; Sexson, M.; Solovyeva, D.; Petersen, M.; Powell, A. (CONSERVATION GENETICS, 2020)
We examined the genetic structure of the threatened spectacled eider 14-18 years after the initial assessment to evaluate the influence of population recovery on diversity. Concordant with the initial assessment, spectacled eiders were highly structured at mitochondrial (mt) DNA and lacked differentiation at microsatellite loci. The degree and spatial pattern of structure has changed at mtDNA; a 33.0-40.3% reduction in overall F-ST and phi(ST), respectively, and a marked reduction in pairwise F-ST (- 83.1 to - 91.4%) among Alaska sites. Reduction in genetic structure is suggestive of increased female dispersal within Alaska. These findings highlight the importance of reevaluating genetic diversity as species recover from declines as microevolutionary and demographic processes are dynamic and continually shape associations among populations.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 2 Total Times Cited: 2 Cited Reference Count: 28
Keywords: Somateria fischeri; FLOW; DNA; DIVERSITY; DELTA; Spectacled eider; MICROSATELLITES; Population genetic structure; POPULATION-STRUCTURE

Do common eiders nest in kin groups? Microgeographic genetic structure in a philopatric sea duck - Sonsthagen, Sarah A.; Talbot, Sandy L.; Lanctot, Richard B.; McCracken, Kevin G. (Molecular Ecology, 2010)
We investigated local genetic associations among female Pacific common eiders (Somateria mollissima v-nigrum) nesting in a stochastic Arctic environment within two groups of barrier islands (Simpson Lagoon and Mikkelsen Bay) in the Beaufort Sea, Alaska. Nonrandom genetic associations were observed among nesting females using regional spatial autocorrelation analyses for distance classes up to 1000 m in Simpson Lagoon. Nearest- neighbour analyses identified clusters of genetically related females with positive lr values observed for 0-13% and 0-7% of the comparisons in Simpson Lagoon and Mikkelsen Bay, respectively, across years. These results indicate that a proportion of females are nesting in close proximity to more genetically related individuals, albeit at low frequency. Such kin groupings may form through active association between relatives or through natal philopatry and breeding site fidelity. Eiders nest in close association with driftwood, which is redistributed annually by seasonal storms. Yet, genetic associations were still observed. Microgeographic structure may thus be more attributable to kin association than natal philopatry and site fidelity. However, habitat availability may also influence the level of structure observed. Regional structure was present only within Simpson Lagoon and this island group includes at least three islands with sufficient driftwood for colonies, whereas only one island at Mikkelsen Bay has these features. A long-term demographic study is needed to understand more fully the mechanisms that lead to fine-scale genetic structure observed in common eiders breeding in the Beaufort Sea.
Keywords: Behavior; Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima

Hierarchical Spatial Genetic Structure of Common Eiders (Somateria Mollissima) Breeding Along a Migratory Corridor - Sonsthagen, Sarah A.; Talbot, Sandy L.; Lanctot, Richard B.; Scribner, Kim T.; McCracken, Kevin G. (Auk, 2009)
Documentation of spatial genetic discordance among breeding populations of Arctic-nesting avian species is important, because anthropogenic change is altering environmental linkages at micro- and macrogeographic scales. We estimated levels of population subdivision within Pacific Common Eiders (Somateria mollissima v-nigrum) breeding on 12 barrier islands in the western Beaufort Sea, Alaska, using molecular markers and capture-mark-recapture (CMR) data. Common Eider populations were genetically structured on a microgeographic scale. Regional comparisons between populations breeding on island groups separated by 90 km (Mikkelsen Bay and Simpson Lagoon) revealed structuring at 1.4 microsatellite loci (F-ST = 0.004, P < 0.01), a nuclear intron (F-ST = 0.022, P = 0.02), and mitochondrial DNA (Phi(ST) = 0.082, P < 0.05). The CMR data (n = 34) did not indicate female dispersal between island groups. Concordance between genetic and CMR data indicates that females breeding in the western Beaufort Sea are strongly philopatric to island groups rather than to a particular island. Despite the apparent high site fidelity of females, coalescence-based models of gene flow suggest that asymmetrical western dispersal occurs between island groups and is likely mediated by Mikkelsen Bay females stopping early on spring migration at Simpson Lagoon to breed. Alternatively, late-arriving females may be predisposed to nest in Simpson Lagoon because of the greater availability and wider distribution of nesting habitat. Our results indicate that genetic discontinuities, mediated by female philopatry, can exist at microgeographic scales along established migratory corridors. Received 31 October 2008, accepted 3 May 2009.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Dispersal; Population Delineation

Genetic characterization of Common Eiders breeding in the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, Alaska - Sonsthagen, Sarah A.; Talbot, Sandy L.; McCracken, Kevin G. (Condor, 2007)
We assessed population genetic subdivision among four colonies of Common Eiders (Somateria niollissima v-nigrum) breeding in the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta (YKD), Alaska, using microsatellite genotypes and DNA sequences with differing modes of inheritance. Significant, albeit low, levels of genetic differentiation were observed between mainland populations and Kigigak Island for nuclear intron lamin A and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control region. Intercolony variation in haplotypic frequencies also was observed at mtDNA. Positive growth signatures assayed from microsatellites, nuclear introns, and mtDNA indicate recent colonization of the YKD, and may explain the low levels of structuring observed. Gene flow estimates based on microsatellites, nuclear introns, and mtDNA suggest asymmetrical gene flow between mainland colonies and Kigigak Island, with more individuals on average dispersing from mainland populations to Kigigak Island than vice versa. The directionality of gene flow observed may be explained by the colonization of the YKD from northern glacial refugia or by YKD metapopulation dynamics.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Population Delineation

Multilocus phylogeography and population structure of common eiders breeding in North America and Scandinavia - Sonsthagen, S. A.; Talbot, S. L.; Scribner, K. T.; McCracken, K. G. (Journal of Biogeography, 2011)
Times Cited: 13 Sonsthagen, Sarah A. Talbot, Sandra L. Scribner, Kim T. McCracken, Kevin G. 13
Keywords: Breeding Season; Common eider; somateria mollissima; Population Delineation

GENETIC STRUCTURE OF THE COMMON EIDER IN THE WESTERN ALEUTIAN ISLANDS PRIOR TO FOX ERADICATION - Sonsthagen, S. A.; Talbot, S. L.; Wilson, R. E.; Petersen, M. R.; Williams, J. C.; Byrd, G. V.; McCracken, K. G. (Condor, 2013)
Times Cited: 0 Sonsthagen, Sarah A. Talbot, Sandra L. Wilson, Robert E. Petersen, Margaret R. Williams, Jeffrey C. Byrd, G. Vernon McCracken, Kevin G. 0
Keywords: Conservation; Breeding Season; Somateria mollissima; Common eider; Population Delineation

Coast to coast: High genomic connectivity in North American scoters - Sonsthagen, S. A.; Wilson, R. E.; Lavretsky, P.; Talbot, S. L. (ECOLOGY AND EVOLUTION, 2019)
Dispersal shapes demographic processes and therefore is fundamental to understanding biological, ecological, and evolutionary processes acting within populations. However, assessing population connectivity in scoters (Melanitta sp.) is challenging as these species have large spatial distributions that span remote landscapes, have varying nesting distributions (disjunct vs. continuous), exhibit unknown levels of dispersal, and vary in the timing of the formation of pair bonds (winter vs. fall/spring migration) that may influence the distribution of genetic diversity. Here, we used double-digest restriction-associated DNA sequence (ddRAD) and microsatellite genotype data to assess population structure within the three North American species of scoter (black scoter, M. americana; white-winged scoter, M. deglandi; surf scoter, M. perspicillata), and between their European congeners (common scoter, M. nigra; velvet scoter, M. fusca). We uncovered no or weak genomic structure (ddRAD phi(ST) F-ST < 0.004) within North America but high levels of structure among European congeners (ddRAD phi(ST) > 0.155, microsatellite F-ST > 0.086). The pattern of limited genomic structure within North America is shared with other sea duck species and is often attributed to male-biased dispersal. Further, migratory tendencies (east vs. west) of female surf and white-winged scoters in central Canada are known to vary across years, providing additional opportunities for intracontinental dispersal and a mechanism for the maintenance of genomic connectivity across North America. In contrast, the black scoter had relatively elevated levels of divergence between Alaska and Atlantic sites and a second genetic cluster found in Alaska at ddRAD loci was concordant with its disjunct breeding distribution suggestive of a dispersal barrier (behavioral or physical). Although scoter populations appear to be connected through a dispersal network, a small percentage (<4%) of ddRAD loci had elevated divergence which may be useful in linking areas (nesting, molting, staging, and wintering) throughout the annual cycle.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 7 Total Times Cited: 7 Cited Reference Count: 82
Keywords: connectivity; sea ducks; waterfowl; dispersal; population genomics; EVOLUTION; HETEROGENEITY; MIGRATION; Melanitta; POPULATION-STRUCTURE; ALIGNMENT; ANATIDAE; FLYWAY STRUCTURE; genetic structure; INDIVIDUALS; SPATIAL GENETIC-STRUCTURE

Harlequin Duck Threat Assessment, Eastern Population - Soulliere, C.E.; Thomas, P.W. (Technical Report Series, 2009)
Seasonal changes in habitat use and behaviour, and the wide geographic range of Harlequin Ducks in eastern North America result in diverse threats to population viability, which vary across regions and across seasons. In Part I of the Threat Assessment, potential and plausible threats to Harlequin Duck in eastern Canada are evaluated; those causing disproportionate stress to breeding females and those with the potential to affect aggregations of ducks at sea are of greatest concern. As the relevance, timing, and intensity of threats differ between the political boundaries of the Provinces in Atlantic Canada, analysis of the status of threats for each Atlantic Province is provided in Part II. Recommendations for threat management and avenues for threat mitigation are discussed within the provincial analyses. This document is intended to be used as a resource and guide for population and habitat managers, environmental assessment officers, and other individuals, agencies, or organizations with a practical interest in the minimization of threats to Harlequin Ducks.
Keywords: Conservation; Histrionicus histrionicus; Harlequin Duck

Distinguishing Hooded Merganser and Wood Duck Nests by Eggshell Thickness - Soulliere, G. J. (Journal of Wildlife Management, 1987)
Although eggshells of hooded mergansers (Mergus cucullatus) and wood ducks (Aix sponsa) are difficult to distinguish by color, I found that eggshell thickness (0.541 vs. 0.255 mm, respectively) provided reliable identification.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Techniques; Hooded Merganser; Lophodytes cucullatus

Nesting characteristics of hooded mergansers, wood ducks, European starlings and tree swallows in Wisconsin - Soulliere, Gregory J.; Rusch, Thomas P. (Journal of Field Ornithology, 1996)
Nest initiation dates and typical characteristics were recorded and summarized from 300 nests of four species of cavity-nesting birds in central Wisconsin. Hooded Mergansers (Mergus cucullatus) were the earliest nesters, followed by Wood Ducks (Aix sponsa), European Starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) and Tree Swallows (Tachycineta bicolor). Egg laying began on 25 March, 13 April, 23 April and 12 May, respectively. Modal nest initiation dates were 10 April for Hooded Mergansers, 30 April for Wood Ducks, 1 May for Starlings and 24 May for Tree Swallows. Composition of nest material and egg-shell color and thickness can be used to distinguish nest sites of these species before and after hatch.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Techniques; Hooded Merganser; Lophodytes cucullatus

Fatty acid profiles of yolk lipids of five species of wild ducks (Anatidae) differing in dietary preference - Speake, Brian K.; Surai, Peter F.; Bortolotti, Gary R. (Journal of Zoology (London), 2002)
The fatty acid compositions of yolk lipids of eggs collected in the wild from five species of ducks (Anatidae) showing a range of dietary preferences, the king eider Somateria spectabilis, the lesser scaup Aythya affinis, the mallard Anas platyrhynchos, the green-winged teal Anas crecca and the gadwall Anas streperi, are reported. For all five species, the fatty acid profiles conformed to a similar pattern, characterized by relatively balanced proportions (w/w) of arachidonic (6.7-9.1%) and docosahexaenoic (5.9-7.0%) acids in yolk phospholipid. This contrasts markedly with the yolk phospholipid of current commercially-reared ducks where the proportion of arachidonic acid can be 10 times greater than that of docosahexaenoic acid. It was most notable that the similarities in yolk fatty acid profiles among the different species of wild ducks were achieved despite the considerable interspecies variation in dietary modes. It seems that, in this instance, genetic factors deriving from a common phylogeny may be more important than dietary differences in determining the fatty acid composition of yolk.
Keywords: Breeding Season; King Eider; Somateria spectabilis; Energetics and Nutrition; Trophic Interactions

Overland Migrations of Common Scoters - Spencer, K. G. (British Birds, 1969)
Keywords: Nonbreeding Seasons; Migration; Black Scoter; Melanitta nigra

Scaling restoration to achieve quantitative enhancement of loon, seaduck, and other seabird populations - Sperduto, Molly B.; Powers, Sean P.; Donlan, Michael (Marine Ecology Progress Series, 2003)
The 1996 'North Cape' oil spill along the Rhode Island coast led to the deaths of at least 2292 birds, resulting in an estimated 6275 bird-years lost (adjusted by expected longevity and productivity). We synthesize information on bird population dynamics to develop an appropriate restoration strategy. Marine birds (seaducks, loons, grebes) with natural recovery periods estimated to exceed 1 yr accounted for 87% of the total bird-years lost. Marine birds (gulls, cormorants, alcids, gannets) with recovery estimated to be less than a year accounted for 10% of injuries. Common loons Gavia immer and common eiders Somateria mollissima were selected as targets for restoration because of regional concern over their population status and the magnitude of lost bird-years. Three restoration options were evaluated for loons: nest site protection; nest site enhancement; and public education/outreach. Nest site enhancement opportunities were limited and benefits from public education/outreach efforts were uncertain. Nest site protection was preferred for both loons and eiders because nest site availability and/or quality currently limit(s) productivity. This option assumes that preventing future productivity loss compensates for productivity loss that resulted from the 'North Cape' oil spill. This assumption is supported by regional productivity estimates for the 2 target species, is consistent with scientific literature, and represents the consensus of expert opinions. Based on a series of scaling calculations, protection of 25 nest sites for a 100 yr period is expected to balance the loss of 2920 loon-years. Protection of 315 eider nest sites over a 100 yr period would replace 2605 bird-years lost (remaining marine bird injury). Calculations adjust future production credit through economic discounting of 3% yr-1. Our analysis provides a means of quantifying the level of breeding habitat protection required to restore injured populations of marine birds.
Keywords: Conservation; Breeding Season; Common Eider; Contaminants; Somateria mollissima

Effects of Midazolam on Corticosterone and Blood Gases in Spectacled Eiders Prior to Transmitter Implantation - Spriggs, M. C.; Rizzolo, D. J.; Martin, K. H.; Myers, G. E.; Sexson, M. G. (JOURNAL OF WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT, 2021)
Stress and physical exertion may affect the physiology and behavior of wildlife during and after capture, and consequently, survival following release. Such effects may reduce the quality and quantity of the data obtained from captured wildlife. We captured spectacled eiders (Somateria fischeri), a species listed as threatened under the United States Endangered Species Act, in western Alaska, USA, during spring 2018 for surgical implantation of satellite transmitters. We evaluated the efficacy of midazolam, a benzodiazepine sedative given at capture, to reduce stress and physical exertion. We dosed spectacled eiders with either midazolam (5 mg/ml, x over bar = 2.2 mg/kg intramuscular; n = 20) or saline (0.7 ml intramuscular; n = 20) at the point of capture. We assessed sedation level and collected blood samples upon arrival to the field surgery site and at anesthetic induction. We found that midazolam reduced mean corticosterone concentration by 29% and median lactate concentration by 30.3% at the mean arrival time (42 min post-dosing) relative to the control group. These effects had abated by the mean induction time (99 min post-dosing). Unexpectedly, blood pH was reduced in the midazolam treatment relative to controls at both arrival and induction, which likely resulted from sedative-induced respiratory depression that was easily treated with intubation and mechanical ventilation, and administration of the reversal drug, flumazenil. Low blood pH was not associated with negative post-surgical outcomes, as had been found in spectacled eiders with acidosis caused by anaerobic metabolism typical of physical exertion. Intramuscular injection of midazolam in the field effectively reduced stress and physical exertion in spectacled eiders prior to surgical implantation of transmitters. (c) 2021 The Wildlife Society.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 1 Total Times Cited: 1 Cited Reference Count: 65
Keywords: Somateria fischeri; YUKON-KUSKOKWIM DELTA; RADIO TRANSMITTERS; XYLAZINE; corticosterone; ECOSYSTEMS; ANESTHESIA; BASE-LINE CORTICOSTERONE; capture; lactate; midazolam; sedation; spectacled eider; stress

Adaptive Significance of Autumn Pair Formation in the Common Eider Somateria-Mollissima - Spurr, E.; Milne, H. (Ornis Scandinavica, 1976)
The relationship between date of pair formation and date of laying in the common eider S. mollissima (L.) at the Sands of Forvie, Scotland, was investigated. The birds were individually marked and many were of known age. Most pairs were formed before mid-winter (22 Dec.); it is thought that most of these were the result of reunification with a previous partner and that they remained intact throughout the winter. Females that paired after mid-winter were mostly 2 and 3 yr old birds and it is thought they formed new pair-bonds. These late-paired females either did not lay or laid late rather than early in the season. The laying dates of females paired before mid-winter were spread right through the season, so that a long association from early pairing did not necessarily lead to early laying. It is nevertheless an advantage for females to pair early and with the previous partner, so as to maintain the pair-bond and to reduce interference to their feeding in spring. Because of male excess (unequal sex ratio), males must be subject to selection pressure to become paired as early in the season as possible.
Keywords: Behavior; Common Eider; Nonbreeding Seasons; Somateria mollissima

Factors Affecting Laying Date in the Common Eider - Spurr, E. B.; Milne, H. (Wildfowl, 1976)
Keywords: Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima

Vigilance behavior in the Harlequin Duck (Histrionicus histrionicus) during the preincubation period in labrador: Are males vigilant for self or social partner? - Squires, Kelly A.; Martin, Kathy; Goudie, R. Ian (Auk, 2007)
Males of several avian species are more vigilant than their female partners, particularly during the preincubation period. Male vigilance may function as a deterrent of extrapair copulation attempts (EPCs) or to ensure male survival, because males of sexually dimorphic species may be more conspicuous to predators than females. However, vigilant males may act as antipredator sentinels to enhance female survivorship, which may also allow females to feed and rest more efficiently, thereby enhancing their ability to form clutches. We attempted to distinguish between the "male benefits" and "female benefits" hypotheses by studying the behavior of unpaired males and paired Harlequin Ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus) during the preincubation period. Paired males were, on average, four times more vigilant than unpaired males and their mates, which suggests that elevated levels of vigilance by paired males does not function primarily for self-protection against predators. Males were not more vigilant during the female's fertile period, contrary to the "paternity assurance" hypothesis. Male vigilance during feeding bouts was highest when pairs fed alone near shore-a condition in which feeding was likely more "risky." Male vigilance was positively correlated with female feeding when females fed near shore, but not at other times. During resting bouts, males were vigilant 14 +/- 0.01% of the time in all conditions. We suggest that male vigilance may be important to enhance female survival, especially when females feed under risky conditions.
Keywords: Behavior; Breeding Season; Harlequin duck; Histrionicus histrionicus

CROSS-SPECIES APPLICABILITY OF MICROSATELLITE MARKERS FOR INVESTIGATION OF SEA DUCKS (Mergini) GENETIC DIFFERENTIATION - Sruoga, Aniolas; Slavenaite, Sigita; Butkauskas, Dalius; Grazulevicius, Gediminas (Proceedings of the Latvian Academy of Sciences Section B Natural Exact and Applied Sciences, 2008)
Genetic studies of waterfowl have provided insufficient information on the evolutionary history of the sea duck tribe (Mergini, Anseriformes), as highly variable molecular markers have not been identified. Cross-species applicability of microsatellites has been shown for several bird families. Therefore, the objective of our work was to examine whether specific primers used previously for Anatidae, Phasianidae and Laridae taxons could amplify microsatellite loci of sea duck species: Long-tailed duck (Clangula hyemalis), Goosander (Mergus merganser) and Velvet Scoter (Melanitta fusca). Tissue samples were collected and DNA was extracted by rapid salt extraction method. Amplification of DNA fragments was carried out using specific microsatellite primers of APH21, Aalmu1, Sfimu4, Sfimu5 (Anatidae), ADL209, ADL115 (Phasianidae) and K71, RGB28 (Laridae). Four primer pairs (APH21, Aalmu1, K71, and nSfimu4) were suitable for investigation of interspecies genetic variability among Long-tailed duck and Velvet Scoter. Intraspecies specificity has been detected for primer pair ADL 209 in all three duck species. The primer pair APH21 was selected as most promising for investigation of intraspecies variability of Long-tailed duck and Velvet Scoter.
Keywords: Melanitta fusca; White-winged Scoter; Clangula hyemalis; Long-tailed Duck; Techniques; Common merganser; Mergus merganser

Parasitic nematode community structure in three wild duck species from Western Pomerania, Poland - Stapf-Skiba, A. N.; Kavetska, K. M. (POLISH JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY, 2019)
Nematode communities of the gastrointestinal tract in three species of wild ducks: mallard (Anas platyrhynchos), tufted duck (Aythya fuligula) and common scoter (Melanitta nigra), from the area of Western Pomerania in Poland, were compared. Nematodes were the most numerous group in the helminth fauna of the common scoter, the second most abundant group in the mallard and the least numerous group among parasites found in the tufted duck. A total of 5348 nematodes belonging to 14 species were isolated from 366 examined ducks. Six nematode species (represented by 607 individuals) were found in mallard, 5 species (493 individuals) in tufted duck and 7 species (3576 individuals) in common scoter. Nematofauna of tufted duck was characterized by the highest species evenness, while the nematofauna of common scoter presented the greatest species diversity. Me analysis of fauna similarity showed one common parasitic species (Epomidiostomum uncinatum) for mallard and common scoter, and three species (Tetrameres ryjikovi, T. spinosa and Echinuria hypognatha) for tufted duck and common scoter. Regarding the spatial distribution of nematodes most of them primarily reside in the proventriculus (84% of all nematodes in mallard and 40% in tufted duck) and gizzard (56.6% of all nematodes in tufted duck and 74% in common scoter), whereas, only individuals of the species Eucoleus contortus and Capillaria anatis were located in the oesophagus and intestine. The results confirm that the phylogenetic differences of the three duck species, as well as the differences in their ecology are accompanied by differences in the structure of parasitic nematode community.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 1 Total Times Cited: 1 Cited Reference Count: 51
Keywords: BIRDS; Melanitta nigra; ECOLOGY; DELTA; ACUARIIDAE; Anas platyrhynchos; Aythya fuligula; ecological indices; HELMINTHS; Nematoda; Western Pomerania

The cost of mate guarding in the Common Eider - Steele, Benjamin B.; Lehikoinen, Aleksi; Ost, Markus; Kilpi, Mikael (Ornis Fennica, 2007)
A male biased sex ratio in Finnish Common Eiders (Somateria mollissima) results in unmated males interacting with eider pairs. We quantified the effects of mate guarding on other behaviors. Mated males spent less time feeding and performed fewer dives than unmated males in 2003, but not in 2004. A cold winter in 2003 implies that eiders arrived on the breeding grounds in poorer condition making feeding more critical. Mated males were dominant over unmated ones, winning two thirds of their aggressions. Mated males had fewer aggressive encounters but spent a greater proportion of their time in aggression. Mated males also seemed to spend extensive energy guarding their mate during infrequent but intensive "harassments", lasting up to 165 minutes, in which 6 to 23 males chased one female. Harassments became more frequent later in the season, when females started incubating and the male bias was most pronounced. These harassments, and the fact that unmated males often approached other ducks, suggest that unmated males are trying to access females. Given the current trend of increasing male bias, both the cost of being mated and the fitness benefits of an alternative mating strategy may increase.
Keywords: Behavior; Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima

Thermogenesis in Newly Hatched Eider Somateria-Mollissima and Long-Tailed Duck Clangula-Hyemalis Ducklings and Barnacle Goose Branta-Leucopsis Goslings - Steen, J. B.; Gabrielsen, G. W. (Polar Research, 1986)
Oxygen consumption and body temperature were recorded in Eider and Long-tailed ducklings and in Barnacle goslings less than 4 days old. In some ducklings organ temperatures during cold exposure and oxidative capacity of various organs were also measured. Both ducklings and goslings were perfectly homeothermic down to -10.degree. NC ambient temperature. Eider hatchlings had a lower critical temperature of 23.degree. C, Long-tailed of 29.degree. C, and Barnacle goslings of 21.degree. C. During cold stress the area below the spine was slightly warmer than the thigh and liver. The high oxidative capacities of these organs compared to yolk, kidney, and gut indicate that the homeothermy in newly hatched ducklings and goslings depends on a combination of good insulation and a high oxidative capacity of leg muscles and liver.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Clangula hyemalis; Long-tailed Duck; Physiology

Favorable spring conditions can buffer the impact of winter carryover effects on a key breeding decision in an Arctic-breeding seabird - Steenweg, R. J.; Crossin, G. T.; Hennin, H. L.; Gilchrist, H. G.; Love, O. P. (ECOLOGY AND EVOLUTION, 2022)
The availability and investment of energy among successive life-history stages is a key feature of carryover effects. In migratory organisms, examining how both winter and spring experiences carryover to affect breeding activity is difficult due to the challenges in tracking individuals through these periods without impacting their behavior, thereby biasing results. Using common eiders Somateria mollissima, we examined whether spring conditions at an Arctic breeding colony (East Bay Island, Nunavut, Canada) can buffer the impacts of winter temperatures on body mass and breeding decisions in birds that winter at different locations (Nuuk and Disko Bay, Greenland, and Newfoundland, Canada; assessed by analyzing stable isotopes of 13-carbon in winter-grown claw samples). Specifically, we used path analysis to examine how wintering and spring environmental conditions interact to affect breeding propensity (a key reproductive decision influencing lifetime fitness in female eiders) within the contexts of the timing of colony arrival, pre-breeding body mass (body condition), and a physiological proxy for foraging effort (baseline corticosterone). We demonstrate that warmer winter temperatures predicted lower body mass at arrival to the nesting colony, whereas warmer spring temperatures predicted earlier arrival dates and higher arrival body mass. Both higher body mass and earlier arrival dates of eider hens increased the probability that birds would initiate laying (i.e., higher breeding propensity). However, variation in baseline corticosterone was not linked to either winter or spring temperatures, and it had no additional downstream effects on breeding propensity. Overall, we demonstrate that favorable pre-breeding conditions in Arctic-breeding common eiders can compensate for the impact that unfavorable wintering conditions can have on breeding investment, perhaps due to greater access to foraging areas prior to laying.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 2 Total Times Cited: 2 Cited Reference Count: 92
Keywords: migration; common eider; COMMON EIDERS; SOMATERIA-MOLLISSIMA; BODY CONDITION; REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS; reproduction; foraging; CONDITION-DEPENDENT MODEL; FORAGING BEHAVIOR; INDIVIDUAL OPTIMIZATION; MIGRATORY BIRD; stable isotopes; BASE-LINE GLUCOCORTICOIDS; corticosterone; ENERGETIC CONSTRAINTS; temperature; trade-offs

Stable isotopes can be used to infer the overwintering locations of prebreeding marine birds in the Canadian Arctic - Steenweg, R. J.; Crossin, G. T.; Kyser, T. K.; Merkel, F. R.; Gilchrist, H. G.; Hennin, H. L.; Robertson, G. J.; Provencher, J. F.; Flemming, J. M.; Love, O. P. (ECOLOGY AND EVOLUTION, 2017)
Although assessments of winter carryover effects on fitness-related breeding parameters are vital for determining the links between environmental variation and fitness, direct methods of determining overwintering distributions (e.g., electronic tracking) can be expensive, limiting the number of individuals studied. Alternatively, stable isotope analysis in specific tissues can be used as an indirect means of determining individual overwintering areas of residency. Although increasingly used to infer the overwintering distributions of terrestrial birds, stable isotopes have been used less often to infer overwintering areas of marine birds. Using Arctic-breeding common eiders, we test the effectiveness of an integrated stable isotope approach (13-carbon, 15-nitrogen, and 2-hydrogen) to infer overwintering locations. Knowing the overwinter destinations of eiders from tracking studies at our study colony at East Bay Island, Nunavut, we sampled claw and blood tissues at two known overwintering locations, Nuuk, Greenland, and Newfoundland, Canada. These two locations yielded distinct tissue-specific isotopic profiles. We then compared the isotope profiles of tissues collected from eiders upon their arrival at our breeding colony, and used a k-means cluster analysis approach to match arriving eiders to an overwintering group. Samples from the claws of eiders were most effective for determining overwinter origin, due to this tissue's slow growth rate relative to the 40-day turnover rate of blood. Despite taking an integrative approach using multiple isotopes, k-means cluster analysis was most effective when using 13-carbon alone to assign eiders to an overwintering group. Our research demonstrates that it is possible to use stable isotope analysis to assign an overwintering location to a marine bird. There are few examples of the effective use of this technique on a marine bird at this scale; we provide a framework for applying this technique to detect changes in the migration phenology of birds' responses to rapid changes in the Arctic.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 12 Total Times Cited: 12 Cited Reference Count: 57
Keywords: SOMATERIA-MOLLISSIMA-BOREALIS; population delineation; REPRODUCTION; seabird; EIDERS; CONDITION-DEPENDENT MODEL; INDIVIDUAL OPTIMIZATION; MIGRATORY BIRD; tracking; biomarker; nitrogen; FEATHERS; carbon; carryover; claw; HYDROGEN; k-means cluster analysis; toenail

Sources of diel variation in energetic physiology in an Arctic-breeding, diving seaduck - Steenweg, R. J.; Hennin, H. L.; Bety, J.; Gilchrist, H. G.; Williams, T. D.; Crossin, G. T.; Love, O. P. (General and Comparative Endocrinology, 2015)
Diel variation in baseline glucocorticoid (GC) secretion influences energetics and foraging behaviors. In temperate breeding, diurnal vertebrates, studies have shown that daily patterns of baseline GC secretion are influenced by environmental photoperiod, with baseline GCs peaking prior to sunrise to stimulate waking and foraging behaviors. Measures of physiological energy acquisition are also expected to peak in response to foraging activity, but their relationship to GC levels have not been well studied. In contrast to temperate breeding species, virtually nothing is known about diel GC and energetic metabolite secretion in Arctic breeding species, which experience almost constant photoperiods in spring and summer. Using a ten-year dataset, we examined the daily, 24-h pattern of baseline corticosterone (CORT) and triglyceride (TRIG) secretion in approximately 800 female pre-breeding Arctic-nesting common eiders (Somateria mollissima). We related these traits to environmental photoperiod and to tidal cycle. In contrast to temperate breeding species, we found that that neither time of day nor tidal trend predicted diel variation in CORT or TRIG secretion in Arctic-breeding eiders. Given the narrow window of opportunity for breeding in polar regions, we suggest that eiders must decouple their daily foraging activity from light and tidal cycles if they are to accrue sufficient energy for successful breeding. As CORT is known to influence foraging behavior, the absence of a distinct diel pattern of CORT secretion may therefore be an adaptation to optimize reproductive investment and likelihood for success in some polar-breeding species. (C) 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Steenweg, Rolanda J. Hennin, Holly L. Bety, Joel Gilchrist, H. Grant Williams, Tony D. Crossin, Glenn T. Love, Oliver P.
Keywords: Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Physiology

Stable isotopes of carbon reveal flexible pairing strategies in a migratory Arctic bird - Steenweg, R. J.; Legagneux, P.; Crossin, G. T.; Gilchrist, H. G.; Kyser, T. K.; Love, O. P. (JOURNAL OF ORNITHOLOGY, 2019)
Many birds change their partners every year and pairing may occur before arrival on the breeding grounds. Early pairing strategies can benefit mates by strengthening pair-bonds and increasing the rate of pre-breeding resource acquisition, leading to increased reproductive output and success, especially for migratory species breeding in seasonally-constrained environments like the Arctic. Despite the theorized and documented advantages of early pairing, we know rather little about pairing phenology in many species. Here, we test the use of a stable isotope (carbon delta C-13) method to assign geographic origin of paired birds to examine pairing phenology in Arctic-breeding Common Eiders (Somateria mollissima borealis). During two consecutive years, we captured paired individuals upon their arrival at breeding grounds approximately 2-3weeks before laying. Pairs with similar delta C-13 in their claws indicates that they paired during winter, while similar blood values (with no similarity in claws) would reveal pairs formed much later, during the pre-breeding period near or on the breeding grounds. While a large proportion of pairs (43%) appeared to pair on wintering grounds, an almost equal number (52%) likely paired within 1month prior to arrival on the breeding grounds. The remaining 5% did not have an obvious pairing time. Despite this variability in pairing phenology, we found no significant differences in body condition between females or males which paired in winter or spring. In the year characterized with more challenging winter conditions, pairs formed in spring tended to have a higher breeding propensity than those formed in winter, although there were no detectable links to body condition. Delaying pairing until spring may be advantageous for Arctic-breeding eiders, although a specific mechanism is unknown. Future research focusing on the energetic costs and benefits for male eiders during these periods would help further understand pairing phenology and potential impacts on males of female breeding decisions. ZusammenfassungStabile Isotope des Kohlenstoffs offenbaren flexible Paarungsstrategien bei einem arktischen ZugvogelViele Vogel wechseln jedes Jahr ihren Partner, wobei Paarbildungen bereits vor der Ankunft im Brutgebiet entstehen konnen. Bei der Strategie, sich fruhzeitig zu verpaaren, konnen die Partner von einer starkeren Paarbindung und einem erhohten Ma ss der Ressourcennutzung wahrend der Vorbrutzeit profitieren. Dies kann vor allem bei Zugvogelarten, die in Regionen mit jahreszeitlich begrenzt gunstigsten Bedingungen wie der Arktis bruten, zu einer Erhohung von Reproduktionsleistungen und -erfolg fuhren. Trotz der theoretisierten und dokumentierten Vorteile der fruhzeitigen Paarbildung wissen wir bei vielen Arten ziemlich wenig uber die Phanologie der Paarung. Wir testeten die Anwendung der Stabilisotopenmethode (Kohlenstoff delta 13C), um die geographische Herkunft der verpaarten Vogel zu bestimmen und somit die Phanologie der Paarung bei den in arktischen Regionen brutenden Eiderenten (Somateria mollissima borealis) zu untersuchen. In zwei aufeinanderfolgenden Jahren haben wir verpaarte Individuen nach deren Ankunft im Brutgebiet ungefahr 2-3 Wochen vor der Eiablage gefangen. Paare mit ahnlichen delta 13C-Werten in den Krallen weisen darauf hin, dass die Paarbildung im Winter stattfand, wohingegen ahnliche Blutwerte, jedoch keine ahnlichen delta 13C-Werte in den Krallen, zeigen wurden, dass die Paarbildung viel spater im Laufe der Vorbrutzeit in Brutgebietsnahe erfolgt ware. Es zeigte sich, dass sich ein gro ss er Anteil der Paare (43%) bereits in den uberwinterungsgebieten bildete, wahrend sich ein ungefahr gleichgro ss er Teil (52%) vermutlich erst innerhalb eines Monates vor Ankunft im Brutgebiet verpaarte. Die verbleibenden 5% hatten keinen eindeutigen Paarungszeitpunkt. Ungeachtet der Variabilitat in der Phanologie der Paarung konnten wir zwischen Weibchen und Mannchen, welche sich im Winter oder Fruhjahr verpaarten, keine signifikanten Unterschiede in der Korperkondition finden. In dem Jahr, in dem schwierigere Winterbedingungen herrschten, tendierten im Fruhjahr entstandene Paare zu einer hoheren Brutbereitschaft als die im Winter entstandenen Paare, wenngleich es keinen feststellbaren Zusammenhang mit der Korperkondition gab. Eine Verzogerung der Paarung bis in das Fruhjahr hinein konnte vorteilhaft fur die in arktischen Regionen brutenden Eiderenten sein, auch wenn der genaue Mechanismus dahinter unbekannt ist. Zukunftige Forschungen zu den energetischen Kosten und Nutzen der mannlichen Eiderenten wahrend dieser Zeitraume wurden dazu beitragen, die Phanologie der Paarung und die moglichen Folgen der weiblichen Brutentscheidungen fur die Mannchen zu verstehen.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 1 Total Times Cited: 2 Cited Reference Count: 48
Keywords: CLUTCH SIZE; COMMON EIDERS; MOVEMENTS; BODY CONDITION; REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS; MOLLISSIMA; Sea duck; HETEROGENEITY; INDIVIDUAL OPTIMIZATION; ICE CONDITIONS; SEX-RATIO; Pair bond; Pairing phenology; Spring staging; Stable isotope analysis; Winter migration

Decline of spectacled eiders nesting in western Alaska - Stehn, Robert A.; Dau, Christian P.; Conant, Bruce; Butler, William I., Jr. (Arctic, 1993)
Spectacled eider (Somateria fischeri) populations in western Alaska are now less than 4% of the numbers estimated in the early 1970s. In 1992, an estimated 1721 nesting pairs remained on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta. Causes of this rapid and continuing decline of -14% per year are undocumented. Many aspects of spectacled eider biology remain unknown, including their marine foraging habitats, food items, migratory movements, and population ecology. A review of some biological characteristics and possible threats to the species suggests the importance of quantifying potential impacts from parasites and disease, subsistence harvest, predation during brood rearing, and alteration of Bering Sea food resources. Factors causing the population decline of spectacled eiders must be determined and appropriate actions taken to reverse the trend.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Somateria fischeri; Spectacled Eider; Abundance, Distribution, and Trends

Assessing the exposure of three diving bird species to offshore wind areas on the US Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf using satellite telemetry - Stenhouse, I. J.; Berlin, A. M.; Gilbert, A. T.; Goodale, M. W.; Gray, C. E.; Montevecchi, W. A.; Savoy, L.; Spiegel, C. S. (DIVERSITY AND DISTRIBUTIONS, 2020)
Aim The United States Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) has considerable offshore wind energy potential. Capturing that resource is part of a broader effort to reduce CO(2)emissions. While few turbines have been constructed in U.S. waters, over a dozen currently planned offshore wind projects have the potential to displace marine birds, potentially leading to effective habitat loss. We focused on three diving birds identified in Europe to be vulnerable to displacement. Our research aimed to determine their potential exposure to areas designated or proposed for offshore wind development along the Atlantic OCS. Methods Satellite tracking technology was used to determine the spatial and temporal use and movement patterns of Surf Scoters (Melanitta perspicillata), Red-throated Loons (Gavia stellata) and Northern Gannets (Morus bassanus), and calculate their exposure to each offshore wind area. We tagged 236 adults in 2012-2015 on the Atlantic OCS from New Jersey to North Carolina; an additional 147 birds tagged in previous tracking studies were integrated into our analyses. Tracking data were analysed in two-week intervals using dynamic Brownian bridge movement models to develop composite spatial utilization distributions. For each species, these distributions were then used to calculate the spatio-temporal exposure to each offshore wind area. Results Surf Scoters and Red-throated Loons were exposed to offshore wind areas almost exclusively during migration because these species were distributed among coastal and inshore waters during winter months. In contrast, Northern Gannets ranged over a much larger area, reaching farther offshore and south in winter, thus exhibited the greatest exposure to extant offshore wind areas. Conclusions Results of this study provide better understanding of how diving birds use current and potential future offshore wind areas on the Atlantic OCS, and can inform permitting, risk assessment and pre- and post-construction impact assessments of offshore energy infrastructure.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 2 Total Times Cited: 2 Cited Reference Count: 85
Keywords: Surf Scoter; VULNERABILITY; COLLISION RISK; SEABIRDS; IMPACTS; MIGRATION; Red-throated Loon; FARMS; offshore wind energy; Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf; diving birds; HOME-RANGE; LOONS; Northern Gannet; spatial use; SUPPORT; wildlife tracking; WINTERING COMMON

Use of Natural Cavity by Bufflehead Nesting in Oregon USA - Stern, M. A.; Wise, T. G.; Theodore, K. L. (Murrelet, 1987)
Keywords: Breeding Season; Bucephala albeola; Bufflehead

Diving schedules of a common loon Gavia immer and a group of oldsquaws Clangula hyemalis - Stewart, Paul A. (Auk, 1967)
Keywords: Behavior; Clangula hyemalis; Long-tailed Duck

Absence from the nest due to human disturbance induces higher nest predation risk than natural recesses in Common Eiders Somateria mollissima - Stien, J.; Ims, R. A. (Ibis, 2016)
Human disturbance of nesting birds may cause reduced breeding success. It is therefore necessary to assess the impact of disturbance to identify steps that minimize negative impacts. We carried out a study of nesting success at two adjacent colonies of Common Eider Somateria mollissima on the islands of GrindOya and HakOya in northern Norway between 2006 and 2011. Over the study period, nesting success was consistently higher on HakOya (69-82%) than on GrindOya (35-60%). Between 2009 and 2011 we used camera monitoring of individual nests to identify determinants of nest survival and predation, focusing in particular on the effect of departures from the nest due to human disturbance, which differed between the colonies due to a long-term research project on GrindOya. Overall, absence of Common Eiders from nests due to disturbance increased the predation risk by a factor of 6.42 for an increase of one additional daily disturbance. In contrast, absence due to natural recesses did not increase nest losses. Under high levels of human disturbance, camera monitoring indicated that the main cause of breeding failure was predation, primarily by Hooded Crows Corvus cornix, but also to some extent Great Black-backed Gulls Larus marinus. The presence of cameras did not increase the predation risk. Both the presence of researchers and the sight of Common Eider females conspicuously departing from nests are likely to have provided cues to these predators. We suggest management trials to reduce nesting disturbance through the guarding of unoccupied nests to mitigate the effects of human disturbance on reproductive success.
Stien, Jennifer Ims, Rolf A.
Keywords: Conservation; Behavior; Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Productivity

Nest predation in declining populations of common eiders Somateria mollissima: an experimental evaluation of the role of hooded crows Corvus cornix - Stien, Jennifer; Yoccoz, Nigel G.; Ims, Rolf A. (Wildlife Biology, 2010)
We evaluated the effect of the removal of hooded crows Corvus cornix on common eider Somateria mollissima nesting success using a partial Before and After Comparison of Impact (BACI) design over three years in two eider breeding colonies (Hakoya and Grindoya) in northern Norway. These breeding colonies had over the last decades been subject to severe declines in number of breeding birds and it was suspected that increasing nest predation by crows was contributing to the declines. Eider nesting success was monitored in both colonies during 2006-2008. Crows were removed by live-trapping from Hakoya in 2007 and from Grindoya in 2008. We monitored the number of nesting pairs of crows and general crow activity. Crow removal was generally successful in reducing the number of established territorial and visiting crows. Modelling of daily nesting success probabilities according to a logistic exposure model revealed that eider nests found at the start of the season had a much lower probability of success than nests found later on in the season. This is likely to be due in part to the increase in number of active nests during the first half of the season. The effect of crow removal appeared to differ between the two colonies. Eider nesting success on Hakoya increased from 61% in the pre-removal year 2006 to 80% during crow removal in 2007 and declined to 74% in the post-removal year 2008. In contrast, nesting success on Grindoya remained constantly low (38-40%) during the same period. This difference between the two colonies could be explained by a difference in predation pressure, or by a higher general disturbance level on Grindoya making unattended nests vulnerable to predation by a range of alternative predator species acting compensatory to the removal of crows. New investigations should be undertaken to clarify the interaction between crows and other nest predators in determining eider nesting success. Where compensation appears to occur, conditions for this process should be investigated. This will help to indicate when crow removal can be effective and which other actions can be employed to increase common eider nesting success.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Productivity; Trophic Interactions

Individual-based ecology of coastal birds - Stillman, Richard A.; Goss-Custard, John D. (Biological Reviews (Cambridge), 2010)
Conservation objectives for non-breeding coastal birds (shorebirds and wildfowl) are determined from their population size at coastal sites. To advise coastal managers, models must predict quantitatively the effects of environmental change on population size or the demographic rates (mortality and reproduction) that determine it. As habitat association models and depletion models are not able to do this, we developed an approach that has produced such predictions thereby enabling policy makers to make evidence-based decisions. Our conceptual framework is individual-based ecology, in which populations are viewed as having properties (e.g. size) that arise from the traits (e.g. behaviour, physiology) and interactions of their constituent individuals. The link between individuals and populations is made through individual-based models (IBMs) that follow the fitness-maximising decisions of individuals and predict population-level consequences (e.g. mortality rate) from the fates of these individuals. Our first IBM was for oystercatchers Haematopus ostralegus and accurately predicted their density-dependent mortality. Subsequently, IBMs were developed for several shorebird and wildfowl species at several European sites, and were shown to predict accurately overwinter mortality, and the foraging behaviour from which predictions are derived. They have been used to predict the effect on survival in coastal birds of sea level rise, habitat loss, wind farm development, shellfishing and human disturbance. This review emphasises the wider applicability of the approach, and identifies other systems to which it could be applied. We view the IBM approach as a very useful contribution to the general problem of how to advance ecology to the point where we can routinely make meaningful predictions of how populations respond to environmental change.
Keywords: Conservation; Behavior; Common Eider; Nonbreeding Seasons; Somateria mollissima; Population Dynamics; Population Model; Habitat; Black Scoter; Melanitta nigra

Differential Vulnerability Patterns among 3 Species of Sea Ducks - Stott, R. S.; Olson, D. P. (Journal of Wildlife Management, 1972)
Keywords: Sea Ducks - General

An Evaluation of Waterfowl Surveys on the New-Hampshire Coastline - Stott, R. S.; Olson, D. P. (Journal of Wildlife Management, 1972)
Keywords: Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Sea Ducks - General; Nonbreeding Seasons; Techniques

Food Habitat Relationship of Sea Ducks on the New-Hampshire Coastline - Stott, R. S.; Olson, D. P. (Ecology (Washington D C), 1973)
Keywords: Sea Ducks - General; Nonbreeding Seasons; Habitat

Environmental contaminants in four eider species from Alaska and arctic Russia - Stout, Jordan H.; Trust, Kimberly A.; Cochrane, Jean F.; Suydam, Robert S.; Quakenbush, Lori T. (Environmental Pollution, 2002)
Population declines in four species of eider; common (Somateria mollissima), king (Somateria spectabilis), spectacled (Somateria fischeri) and Steller's (Polysticta stelleri), have raised concerns about exposure to contaminants. Livers and kidney tissues were collected from eiders in Alaska and Russia for organic and elemental analyses. Results showed that organochlorine and many elemental levels were below toxic thresholds; however, in many cases, cadmium, copper, lead and selenium appeared high relative to other waterfowl and may warrant concern. With the exception of lead, local anthropogenic sources for these elements are not known. Although adverse physiological responses have not been documented in eiders, these four elements cannot be ruled out as contaminants of potential concern for some eider species.
Keywords: Somateria fischeri; Spectacled Eider; Common Eider; Contaminants; Somateria mollissima; King Eider; Somateria spectabilis; Polysticta stelleri; Steller's eider

Accumulation and trophic transfer of organotins in a marine food web from the Danish coastal waters - Strand, Jakob; Jacobsen, Jens A. (Science of the Total Environment, 2005)
The presence of organotin compounds, e.g., tributyltin (TBT) and triphenyltin (TPhT) including the di- and monosubstituted breakdown products, was studied in a representative marine food web in order to assess the accumulation potential at different trophic levels in Danish coastal waters. This included samples of two species of seaweed, four species of invertebrates, four species of fish, five species of birds and two species of mammals. All organisms were sampled away from harbour areas and the organotin concentrations found in this study can therefore be considered to reflect a general level in organisms living in Danish coastal waters. All the samples analysed contained organotin compounds. The highest hepatic concentrations of butyltins were found in flounder (60-259 ng g(-1) wet weight [ww], as Sn), eider duck (12-202 ng g(-1) ww) and harbour porpoise (134-2283 ng g(-1) ww). The lowest concentrations were found in seaweed and a plant-feeding bird. TPhT or its degradation products were also found in most of the samples with the highest concentrations in flounder (9.8-74 ng g(-1) ww), cod (23-28 ng g(-1) ww) and great black-backed gull (19-24 ng g(-1) ww). This indicates an input of TPhT in the region, probably from the use as antifouling agent. A high variance in accumulation potential was found between the species, even between species at the same trophic level, which probably reflects the species-specific differences in exposure routes and the capabilities to metabolise and eliminate the organotin compounds. This study gives evidence of the importance of biomagnification of butyltin in harbour porpoises and, to a lesser extent, in fish and birds. (c) 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Sea Ducks - General; Contaminants

Ammersee area 1966-1996: Part 1: Tendencies in selected breeding birds - Strehlow, Johannes (Ornithologischer Anzeiger, 1997)
From the Ammersee area (about 250 km2, including a Ramsar site/IBA of 65,2 km2 with lake Ammersee 46,6 km2), 27 breeding species are selected that all show a trend in numbers. Of these 11 have recently settled in the last 30 years, three increased, six decreased (two of these are now extinct), and seven showed +- trends. - The Yellow Wagtail (Motacilla flava) has disappeared as a breeding bird in 1984, probably also the Corn Bunting (Miliaria calandra) since 1995. The Lapwing (Vanellus vanellus) is now nearly extinct, whereas the population of the Curlew (Numenius arquata) has decreased by ca. 80%. In contrast, new breeding birds have settled in the area for the first time such as Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo), Greylag Goose (Anser anser), Swan Goose (Anser cygnoides), Goosander (Mergus merganser), Black Kite (Milvus migrans), Mediterranean Gull (Larus melanocephalus), Yellow-legged Gull (Larus cachinnans), Stonechat (Saxicola torquata), River Warbler (Locustella fluviatilis), Bearded Tit (Panurus biarmicus), and Rook (Corvus frugilegus). Meanwhile, the Stock Dove (Columba oenas) has produced 97 clutches in 1996 in 50 nest boxes (mostly two broods per pair), an outstanding population for southern Bavaria. Thus, altogether a positive balance. Birds in our area have profitted from range extension tendencies in Middle Europe as well as from Ammersee-specific measures and natural events as there are: creation of three natural reserves, activities of the "Schutzgemeinschaft Ammersee-Sud", founded in 1977, attaching of many nest boxes (for Kestrel, Rock Dove, Jackdaw, and others), raising gravel islets by hand and natural formation of a larger system of islets at the mouth of the river Ammer (for Greylag Goose, Little Ringed Plover, Gulls).
Keywords: Breeding Season; Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Sea Ducks - General; Common merganser; Mergus merganser

Ammersee area 1966-1996: Trends in selected visiting birds - Strehlow, Johannes (Ornithologischer Anzeiger, 1998)
For part I comprising breeding birds, see Orn. Anz. 36, 1997: 125-142. - Unless stated otherwise, the maxima in the diagrams are the highest daily counts of a year or winter. 32 visiting birds in the Ammersee area are selected which show a trend in numbers since 1966, partly also in the frequency of their occurrence. Of these, essentially more species show an increase in numbers than a decrease (15:3 species), whereas 14 more species exhibit changing trends (table). Above all, the frequent species Tufted Duck (Aythya fuligula) and Coot (Fulica atra) have decreased (Figs. 3, 4). Probably the reason therefore is the transition of lake Ammersee from the eutrophic to the mesotrophic state. This is documented also by a decrease of all waterfowl (Fig. 1). In addition, after an increase for about 10 years also numbers of Mute Swan (Cygnus olor, Fig. 26), Teal (Anas crecca), and Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos, Figs. 28, 29) diminished strongly in the last 15 to 20 years. The fish-eating species Great Crested Grebe (Podiceps cristatus), Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo), and Goosander (Mergus merganser) run through a marked maximum at the end of the eighties/beginning of the nineties (Figs. 24, 34), which points to a similar development of available fish amounts. Taking into account all waterfowl, the ecological system Ammersee proves very complex. Thus, at present it is not possible to give simple relations applying to all species. - The increase of 15 species (table) is not specific for the Ammersee area in most cases, but a result of common trends in Middle Europe. Roosts were detected for Hen Harrier (Circus cyaneus) and Merlin (Falco columbarius) with a maximum of 31 and 5 individuals, respectively.
Keywords: Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Sea Ducks - General; Nonbreeding Seasons; Common merganser

The Black-Headed Gull Larus-Ridibundus as a Food Parasite - Strunk, P. (Beitraege zur Vogelkunde, 1975)
Keywords: Trophic Interactions; Mergus serrator; Red-breasted merganser

Escape behavior of common merganser duck broods Michigan, USA - Stutz, Sherwood S. (Murrelet, 1965)
Keywords: Behavior; Common merganser; Mergus merganser

Size of common merganser broods - Stutz, Sherwood S. (Murrelet, 1965)
Keywords: Breeding Season; Productivity; Common merganser; Mergus merganser

Spatiotemporal Trends in Fish Mercury from a Mine-Dominated Ecosystem: Clear Lake, California - Suchanek, Thomas H.; Eagles-Smith, Collin A.; Slotton, Darell G.; Harner, E. James; Colwell, Arthur E.; Anderson, Norman L.; Mullen, Lauri H.; Flanders, John R.; Adam, David P.; McElroy, Kenneth J. (Ecological Applications, 2008)
Clear Lake, California, USA, receives acid mine drainage and mercury (Hg) from the Sulphur Bank Mercury Mine, a U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (U. S. EPA) Superfund Site that was active intermittently from 1873 to 1957 and partially remediated in 1992. Mercury concentrations were analyzed primarily in four species of Clear Lake fishes: inland silversides (Menidia beryllina, planktivore), common carp (Cyprinus carpio, benthic scavenger/omnivore), channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus, benthic omnivorous predator), and largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides, piscivorous top predator). These data represent one of the largest fish Hg data sets for a single site, especially in California.Spatially, total Hg (TotHg) in silversides and bass declined with distance from the mine, indicating that the mine site represents a point source for Hg loading to Clear Lake. Temporally,fish Hg has not declined significantly over 12 years since mine site remediation. Mercury concentrations were variable throughout the study period, with no monotonic trends of increase or decrease, except those correlated with boom and bust cycles of an introduced. fish, threadfin shad (Dorosoma petenense). However, stochastic events such as storms also influence juvenile largemouth bass Hg as evidenced during an acid mine drainage over flow event in 1995.Compared to other sites regionally and nationally, most fish in Clear Lake exhibit Hg concentrations similar to other Hg-contaminated sites, up to similar to 2.0 mg/kg wet mass (WM) TotHg in largemouth bass. However, even these elevated concentrations are less than would be anticipated from such high inorganic Hg loading to the lake. Mercury in some Clear Lake largemouth bass exceeded all human health fish consumption guidelines established over the past 25 years by the U. S. Food and Drug Administration (1.0 mg/kg WM), the National Academy of Sciences (0.5 mg/kg WM), and the U. S. EPA (0.3 mg/kg WM). Mercury in higher trophic level fishes exceeds ecotoxicological risk assessment estimates for concentrations that would be safe for wildlife, specifically the nonlisted Common Merganser and the recently delisted Bald Eagle.Fish populations of 11 out of 18 species surveyed exhibited a significant decrease in abundance with increasing proximity to the mine; this decrease is correlated with increasing water and sediment Hg. These trends may be related to Hg or other lake-wide gradients such as distribution of submerged aquatic vegetation.
Keywords: Contaminants; Common merganser; Mergus merganser

Influenza virus subtypes in aquatic birds of eastern Germany - Suess, J.; Schaefer, J.; Sinnecker, H.; Webster, R. G. W. (Archives of Virology, 1994)
We report the findings of a 12-year surveillance study (1977-89) of avian influenza A viruses in eastern Germany. Viruses were isolated directly from feral ducks (n = 236) and other wild birds (n = 89); from domestic ducks (n = 735) living on a single farm; and from white Pekin ducks (n = 193) used as sentinels for populations of wild aquatic birds; mainly sea birds. The efficiency of virus isolation was 9.9% overall, with considerable variability noted among species: 8.7% in wild ducks, 0.9% in other feral birds and 38% in Pekin ducks. Use of sentinel ducks in wild pelagic bird colonies improved virus detection rates fivefold, suggesting that this approach is advantageous in ecological studies. Among the 40 different combinations of hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) subtypes we identified, H6N1 predominated (23.6% for all avian species), followed by H4N6 (11%). Among individual species, the frequency profiles favored H2N3 (20.8%) and H4N6 (20.3%) in feral ducks; H7N7 (22.3%), H4N6 (24.4%) and H2N3 (10.4%) in Pekin ducks used as sentinels; and H6N1 (34.8%) and H6N6 (15.1%) in domestic ducks maintained on a single farm. By relying on sentinel birds for serological assays, it was possible to trace an "influenza season" in feral swan populations, beginning in August and continuing through the winter months. Comparison of subtype distribution of influenza viruses for Europe and North America showed significant differences. This supports the fact of two geographically distinct gene pools of influenza viruses in birds connected with their distinct flyways of each hemisphere. The high frequency of isolation of H2 influenza viruses is of considerable interest to those interested in the recycling of this subtype in humans. Similarly the frequent isolation of H7N7 influenza viruses raises concern about reservoirs of potentially pathogenic influenza virus for domestic poultry. Our results confirm the existence of a vast reservoir of influenza A viruses in European aquatic birds, which possesses sufficient diversity to account for strains that infect lower animals and humans.
Keywords: Sea Ducks - General; Disease

An observation of interspecific strife between Barrow's goldeneye and lesser scaup - Sugden, Lawson G. (Canadian Field Nat, 1960)
Observation of a female Barrow's goldeneye Bucephala islandica attacking a female lesser scaup Aythya affinis and killing a downy scaup. ABSTRACT AUTHORS: L. G. Sugden
Keywords: Behavior; Breeding Season; Barrow's Goldeneye; Bucephala islandica

Long term stability of boreal lake habitats and use by breeding ducks - Suhonen, S.; Nummi, P.; Poysa, H. (Boreal Environment Research, 2011)
Times Cited: 1 Suhonen, Sari Nummi, Petri Poysa, Hannu 1 B
Keywords: Breeding Season; Bucephala clangula; Common Goldeneye; habitat

Subtidal populations of the blue mussel Mytilus edulis as key determinants of waterfowl flocks in the southeastern Barents Sea - Sukhotin, A. A.; Krasnov, Yu V.; Galaktionov, K. V. (Polar Biology, 2008)
Ornithological surveys conducted over the Pechora Sea (the southeastern part of the Barents Sea) in the 1990 s revealed huge non-nesting flocks of marine ducks, the largest in the European North. Especially dense waterfowl aggregations are constantly observed at the shallows near Dolgij Island during molting period and migration to wintering places. All the marine ducks flocking there are specialized benthos feeders predominantly consuming mussels Mytilus edulis. At the same time, numerous previous benthic studies in the Pechora Sea did not reveal mussels near Dolgij Island where benthic biomass was somewhat lower than in the adjacent areas (Denisenko in Mar Ecol Prog Ser 258:109-123. 2003) which left the food source for these abundant bird flocks enigmatic. In the course of an expedition in summer 2007 we found subtidal populations of M. edulis in shallows to the southwest of Dolgij Island. These populations were confined to a coastal zone and were characterized by a highly disjunct distribution with the biomass reaching up to 4 kg m(-2). We describe these subtidal populations as well as an intertidal mussel population on the western shore of Dolgij Island.
Keywords: Sea Ducks - General; Nonbreeding Seasons; Habitat

The breeding biology of Dark-bellied Brent Geese Branta b. bernicla and King Eiders Somateria spectabilis on the northeastern Taimyr Peninsula, especially in relation to Snowy Owl Nyctea scandiaca nests - Summers, R. W.; Underhill, L. G.; Syroechkovski, E. E., Jr.; Lappo, H. G.; Prys-Jones, R. P.; Karpov, V. (Wildfowl, 1994)
It was established that Brent Geese nesting in the northeastern Taimyr Peninsula belong to the nominate race Branta bernicla bernicla. Brent Geese and King Eiders were found nesting close to Snowy Owl nests during the lemming peak of 1991. All nested successfully. It is believed that the waterfowl benefited from the aggressive nature of the Snowy Owls which exclude predators such as Arctic Foxes from hunting close to their nests. This situation was first described for B. b. nigricans which breeds exclusively near Snowy Owl nests on Wrangel Island. As Snowy Owls breed primarily when lemmings are abundant, the Brent Geese on Wrangel Island and the mainland of the northeastern Taimyr Peninsula are indirectly dependent on the lemmings.
Keywords: Breeding Season; King Eider; Somateria spectabilis

Short timescale rate maximization by gulls and implications for predation on size-structured prey - Suraci, J. P.; Dill, L. M. (Behavioral Ecology, 2013)
Suraci, Justin P. Dill, Lawrence M.

King Eider: Somateria spectabilis - Suydam, Robert S. (Birds of North America, 2000)
Keywords: Breeding Season; Nonbreeding Seasons; King Eider; Somateria spectabilis

Population declines of King and Common Eiders of the Beaufort Sea - Suydam, Robert S.; Dickson, D. Lynne; Fadely, Janey B.; Quakenbush, Lori T. (Condor, 2000)
King (Somateria spectabilis) and Common Eiders (S. mollissima v-nigra) wintering off western North America migrate past Point Barrow, Alaska and across the Beaufort Sea to nest in northern Alaska and northwestern Canada. Migration counts were conducted by various researchers at Point Barrow during 1953, 1970, 1976, 1987, 1994, and 1996. We examined population trends by standardizing the analysis of the migration counts in all years. Based on this standardized procedure, the King Eider population appeared to remain stable between 1953 and 1976 but declined by 56% (or 3.9% year-1) from approximately 802,556 birds in 1976 to about 350,835 in 1996. The Common Eider population declined by 53% (or 3.6% year-1) from approximately 156,081 birds in 1976 to about 72,606 in 1996. Reasons for the declines are unknown.
Keywords: Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Common Eider; Nonbreeding Seasons; Migration; Somateria mollissima; King Eider; Somateria spectabilis

Migration of King, Somateria spectabilis, and Common, S. mollissima v-nigra, eiders past Point Barrow, Alaska, during spring and summer/fall 1996 - Suydam, Robert S.; Quakenbush, Lori T.; Dickson, D. Lynne; Obritschkewitsch, Tim (Canadian Field-Naturalist, 2000)
We counted migrating King (Somateria spectabilis) and Common (S. mollissima v-nigra) eiders at Point Barrow, Alaska, during spring and summer/fall 1996. During spring (1 May to 2 June), we estimated that 371 451 (95% C.I.+- 109 093) King and 72 606 (95% C.I. +- 13 824) Common eiders passed Point Barrow eastbound. During summer/fall (10 July to 16 October), we estimated a passage of 507 667 (95% C.I.+- 84 680) King and 111 635 (95% C.I. +- 42 440) Common eiders westbound. Our estimates provide evidence that both populations may have declined since 1976. Many King Eiders were observed in September and October suggesting that 1996 was a productive year. Migration counts during late fall at Point Barrow may provide a means to monitor King Eider production. King Eiders appeared at Point Barrow in early May but the peak of Common Eider migration occurred later. During summer/fall migration, most male and many female King Eiders migrated out of the Beaufort Sea to molt, whereas approximately 75% of the Common Eiders molted before migrating past Point Barrow in September and October. King Eiders comprised 85% to 90% of the identified eider migration, Common Eiders comprised most of the rest, and very small numbers of Spectacled (Somateria fischeri) and Steller's eiders (Polysticta stelleri) were seen.
Keywords: Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Common Eider; Nonbreeding Seasons; Migration; Somateria mollissima; King Eider; Somateria spectabilis

Natural elements and anthropogenic disturbance affecting the distribution of water birds on a river in winter - Suzuki, Hiroyuki (Japanese Journal of Ornithology, 2010)
The relationships between natural elements, anthropogenic disturbances, and water bird species distribution were studied along a mid-stream section of the Abukuma River, northeastern Japan, in winter. Of the 17 bird species recorded in the study area, 14 were significantly affected by one or more items among the four explanatory variables in the multiple regression analysis. The distributions of Long-billed Plover Charadrius placidus and Little Egret Egretta garzetta were significantly correlated with the riffles. Conversely, Spot-billed Duck Anas poecilorhyncha distribution was significantly correlated with pools. Common Merganser Mergus merganser, Great Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo and Mallard A. platyrhynchos were significantly correlated with river confluences. The distributions of Whooper Swan Cygnus cygnus, Tundra Swan C. columbianus, Northern Pintail A. acuta, Eurasian Wigeon A. penelope, Common Pochard Aythya ferina and Tufted Duck A. fuligula were significantly correlated with sites where people feeding birds. Grey Heron Ardea cinerea and Great Egret E. alba were significantly correlated with areas into which neither people nor vehicles intruded. Common Teal A. crecca showed no preference for any particular area. This study suggests that anthropogenic disturbances are critical factors affecting the distribution of water birds, and that preserving landscape elements composed of natural geographical features and vegetation are important for conserving biodiversity in river ecosystems from the standpoint of water bird communities in winter.
Keywords: Conservation; Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Nonbreeding Seasons; Common merganser; Mergus merganser; Habitat

Internationally important sites for wintering and migratory wildfowl (Anatidae) in Lithuanian marine and brackish waters - Svazas, S. (Gibier Faune Sauvage, 1996)
Keywords: Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Sea Ducks - General; Nonbreeding Seasons

Population structure among breeding and wintering long-tailed ducks Clangula hyemalis in the Western Palearctic - Svazas, Saulius; Sruoga, Aniolas; Paulauskas, Algimantas; Butkauskas, Dalius (Ornis Svecica, 2005)
We used gel electrophoresis of common proteins and alloenzymes to study genetic variability among Long-tailed Ducks breeding in the northeast European tundra and wintering in the Baltic Sea. The observed genetic variability in the studied breeding population was lower than in birds sampled on winter ground in the Baltic. We found a similar genetic structure among the breeding birds and certain samples from wintering grounds in the Baltic Sea. The wintering birds showed evidence of genetic structure between years, possibly resulting from winter movements of different subpopulations of Long-tailed Ducks in the Baltic Sea. These findings are consistent with results of field surveys of Long-tailed Ducks wintering in the Baltic Sea.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Nonbreeding Seasons; Clangula hyemalis; Long-tailed Duck; Population Delineation

Merganser predation and its impact on Atlantic salmon smolts in the river Tana estuary, north Norway - Svenning, Martin- A.; Fagermo, Stein E.; Barrett, Rob; Borgstrom, Reidar; Vader, Wim; Pedersen, Torstein; Sandring, Stig (American Fisheries Society Annual Meeting, 2003)
Keywords: Conservation; Trophic Interactions; Common merganser; Mergus merganser

Goosander predation and its potential impact on Atlantic salmon smolts in the River Tana estuary, northern Norway - Svenning, M. A.; Fagermo, S. E.; Barrett, R. T.; Borgstrom, R.; Vader, W.; Pedersen, T.; Sandring, S. (Journal of Fish Biology, 2005)
In the summers of 1981 and 2000, 288 goosanders Mergus merganser were sampled in the estuary of the River Tana in northern Norway, which has the largest wild Atlantic salmon Salmo salar stock in the world. Based on 2308 otoliths found in their stomach contents, sandeels Ammodytes sp. were found to be the dominant prey, and only one pair of Atlantic salmon otoliths was found. This suggested that goosanders were not significant predators on Atlantic salmon smolts in the estuary, probably because of the high abundance of sandeels and other marine prey fishes, at least in these particular years. (c) 2005 The Fisheries Society of the British Isles.
Keywords: Conservation; Breeding Season; Trophic Interactions; Common merganser; Mergus merganser

A note on the most common call of the black scoter, M. nigra - Swanberg, P. O. (Dansk Ornithol Foren Tidsskr, 1948)
At close range M. nigra was heard to produce both single and double-syllable notes and the double note was accompanied by a whistling sound in flight. This note heard at night from migrating ducks indicates nigra, rather than fusca. || ABSTRACT AUTHORS: O. J. Murie
Keywords: Behavior; Nonbreeding Seasons; Black Scoter; Melanitta nigra

Common Eiders Somateria-Mollissima with Aberrant Plumages - Swennen, C. (Limosa, 1990)
Keywords: Common Eider; Molt; Somateria mollissima

Notes on the Sex Ratio in the Common Eider Somateria-Molissima - Swennen, C.; Duiven, P.; Reyrink, L. A. F. (Ardea, 1979)
In the years 1975-1977 the sex was established in 3217 newly hatched eider ducklings in the breeding colony on the Island of Vlieland, The Netherlands. During these 3 yr the sex ratio did not deviate appreciably from 1. In 1978, on the nursery grounds off Vlieland, all 1174 ducklings present were captured and sexed at the time when they were ready to fledge. The males accounted for 54.2% of the total, a noticeable and statistically significant departure from the balanced sex ratio at birth. Factors responsible for the imbalanced sex ratio, such as increased female mortality due to disease and a higher male birth rate were discussed. Sex ratios at wintering and breeding grounds were evaluated.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Common Eider; Nonbreeding Seasons; Somateria mollissima; Population Dynamics; Survival

Abnormal Plumage in Possibly Senile Female Eiders Somateria-Mollissima - Swennen, C.; Duiven, P.; Wintermans, G. J. M. (Wildfowl, 1989)
A collection of 460 Eiders that had fallen victim to an oil-pollution incident in the Wadden Sea in January 1987 was studied. Three individuals, initially classified as 2nd-calendar-year males on the basis of plumage characteristics, had divergent patterns on head and wing. Autopsies revealed that all were adult females: they had no testis and no bursa Fabricius, but an ovarium with a convoluted oviduct and female bulla ossea. It was concluded that the birds had a disturbed hormone balance, and probably were senile. Following these observations, two such birds were found among 43 dead Eiders that had been washed ashore on Texel in the winter of 1987-88 and another was discovered alive among a group of adult, non-breeding Eiders in the Vlieland colony (The Netherlands) in May 1987. None of the c.7500 breeding females handled for ringing during the past 25 years showed any sign of a male-like plumage. It may well be that such birds are more common in the non-breeding group, but that they have been misidentified as immature males during former field observations. The findings suggest that some females from the non-hunted Dutch Eider population may die of old age.
Keywords: Common Eider; Nonbreeding Seasons; Molt; Somateria mollissima

Determinate laying and egg attendance on common eiders - Swennen, C.; Ursem, J. C. H.; Duiven, P. (Ornis Scandinavica, 1993)
Egg laying, egg attendance by females, and egg loss were studied in the Common Eider Somateria mollissima. Clutch size fixation appeared to occur before the first egg was laid (determinate laying). Intervals between the laying of eggs were usually about 24 h. Permanent egg attendance started before clutch completion (4 to 6 eggs), usually from the second egg on, and was independent of the actual number of eggs in the nest and final clutch size. Egg loss during inattentive periods was 80 times higher than during attendance. Spontaneous breaks in incubation occurred at intervals of 1-3 days, but sometimes a female left 2 or 3 times a day. Breaks were used for drinking and lasted between a few min and 2.5 h. Females left most frequently in the first few hours after sunset. The ducklings hatched nearly synchronously except the last egg, which hatched on average 8 h later than the others. Early egg attendance, fasting during incubation, and leaves during night hours will have evolved for clutch protection.
Keywords: Behavior; Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Productivity

Variation in egg size of common eiders - Swennen, C.; Van Der Meer, J. (Ardea, 1992)
Egg size of Eiders Somateria mollissima was studied in the colony on Vlieland, The Netherlands, during six consecutive years. Mean length and breadth of 2476 eggs was 77.84 and 51.25 mm, respectively. Mean volume measured of 1882 of these eggs was 104.03 cm-3. A large variation in egg size was found, the volume of the smallest egg being only 53 of the largest one. Major factors influencing the size variation appeared to be differences between females and the position of the egg in the laying sequence of the clutch. Differences in egg size between females were not related to their body size. The first egg in a clutch was smaller than the second, but the last egg was the smallest. Also clutch size and age of the female contributed to the variation. Females produced smaller eggs as they grew older. Age affected the last eggs in the clutch more than the first ones. Mean egg size varied only slightly among years, though temperatures in winter and food conditions in spring varied considerably during the study.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Physiology

Composition of eggs of common eiders - Swennen, C.; Van Der Meer, J. (Canadian Journal of Zoology, 1995)
The content of common eider (Somateria mollissima) eggs as studied in the colony on the Dutch island of Vlieland for 3 years. Mean wet mass was 108 g: ca. 9% shell, ca. 45% albumen, and ca. 45% yolk. Mean dry density (g cntdot cm-3) was 0.086 for shell, 0.069 for albumen, 0.094 for lean yolk, and 0.169 for yolk lipids. The average energy value of the egg content was estimated at 10.45 kJ cntdot cm-3, and 1087 kJ for the content of an average egg with a volume of 104 cm-3. The average energy value of the shell membranes amounted to 15 kJ. The most common clutch size is 5 eggs, which means that, on average, 5510 kJ is directly invested in a clutch. Corrected for volume, total dry mass and dry mass of lean yolk, albumen, and fat differed among females. Corrected for volume, lean yolk mass decreased with clutch size; other components were not involved. This induced an increase in the ratio of lipid in the yolk to lean yolk with clutch size. Within a clutch, dry mass of the components varied isometrically with egg volume. Egg volume varies according to the laying sequence, those laid in the middle of the sequence being largest. Therefore, the amount of energy allocated to individual eggs in a clutch varies according to the same curvilinear relationship.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Energetics and Nutrition

Organochlorines in common goldeneyes wintering in New York - Swift, Bryan L.; Foley, Robert E.; Batcheller, Gordon R. (Wildlife Society Bulletin, 1993)
Keywords: Nonbreeding Seasons; Bucephala clangula; Common Goldeneye; Contaminants

Coping with darkness and low temperatures: Foraging strategies in Steller's eiders, Polysticta stelleri, wintering at high latitudes - Systad, Geir Helge; Bustnes, Jan Ove (Canadian Journal of Zoology, 2001)
To examine how Steller's eiders, Polysticta stelleri, wintering at 70degreeN cope with adverse winter conditions in terms of darkness and low temperatures, we studied their feeding behaviour during four periods between late autumn and early spring. Steller's eiders were most likely to feed during daylight and twilight, but they also fed during darkness. The incidence of feeding was highest at low tide, and there was a significant interaction between tidal cycle and winter period. Hence, the birds fed more intensively at low tide in midwinter (January) than during the other periods. Air temperatures were between 8 and 10degreeC lower in midwinter than during the other periods, and during this period the eiders also fed more by means of nondiving techniques (up-ending, surface feeding). The total estimated feeding time was highest in late autumn and midwinter (5.9 and 6.3 h were spent actively feeding, respectively) and lower in late winter and spring (5.1 and 4.6 h, respectively). Thus, as energy requirements increased as a result of low temperatures, Steller's eiders increased their feeding effort, but also reduced feeding costs by reducing diving depth. The results of this study suggest that the Steller's eider is behaviourally well adapted to survive winter at high latitudes at relatively low stress.
Keywords: Behavior; Nonbreeding Seasons; Polysticta stelleri; Steller's eider

Behavioral responses to decreasing day length in wintering sea ducks - Systad, Geir H.; Bustnes, Jan O.; Erikstad, Kjell E. (Auk, 2000)
Sea ducks generally are diurnal feeders, but large numbers winter above the Arctic Circle where day lengths decrease dramatically in winter. To determine how sea ducks cope with short day lengths, we studied different aspects of the behavior of three sympatric wintering species (Common Eider (Somateria mollissima), King Eider (S. spectabilis), and Old-squaw (Clangula hyemalis)) at 70degreeN where day length is reduced to less than 4.5 h of twilight in midwinter. Numbers of both eider species remained fairly constant throughout winter, whereas Oldsquaws moved out of the area in midwinter. As day length decreased, eiders extended their feeding period into lower light intensities. Common Eiders and Oldsquaws spent a higher proportion of the day diving (underwater) when days were short, whereas King Eiders did not. As the days lengthened, King Eiders and Oldsquaws increased their total time diving at similar rates, which were faster than those of Common Eiders. Feeding at lower light intensities and increased proportions of time spent diving did not offset reduced feeding time in midwinter, and estimated time spent underwater during daylight on the shortest days was only 35% of that on the longest days in King Eiders, 51% in Common Eiders, and 39% in Oldsquaws. The ability to survive when days are short might be explained by use of stored nutrient reserves, night feeding, or high prey availability.
Keywords: Behavior; Common Eider; Nonbreeding Seasons; Clangula hyemalis; Long-tailed Duck; Somateria mollissima; King Eider; Somateria spectabilis

Pesticide and Poly Chlorinated Bi Phenyl of Common Eider Herring Gull and Great Black-Backed Gull Eggs - Szaro, R. C.; Coon, N. C.; Kolbe, E. (Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 1979)
Keywords: Breeding Season; Common Eider; Contaminants; Somateria mollissima

Account of Oil Pollution Damaging the Sea Birds in Gdansk Bay - Szczepski, J. B. (Przeglad Zoologiczny, 1976)
Observations and statistics dealt with seabirds dying in 1947-1970 (chiefly in 1957-1970); a total of 1141 dead birds, belonging to 23 spp. and 5 orders were examined. From among 1141 birds, 806 (70.6%) had remnants of oil damage. The most damaged specimens [spec.] belonged to the Anseriformes (855 spec. = 75%), followed by Charadriiformes (244 spec. = 21.4%) and Ralliformes (26 spec.), Podicipediformes (11 spec.), Gaviiformes (5 spec.) - together 42 spec. (3.6%). Among the Anseriiformes the most numerous oil damaged birds were long-tailed ducks, Clangula hyemalis, i.e., 540 spec. = 85.7%, mostly males (450 spec. = 62.5%). Numerous velvet scoters, Melanitta fusca, and common scoters, M. nigra, together with the long-tailed duck amounted to 614 spec. = 97.4% of the total number of Anseriformes. The gulls (Laridae) and auks (Alcidae) held the main position among the oil-damaged species of Charadriiformes. Oil damage averaged 69.7% of gull specimens and 56% of auks. The longtailed ducks were the most oil-damaged species, followed by the velvet scoter and the common scoter, and last, the gulls (Larus sp.) and auks (Alca, Uria, Cepphus.).
Keywords: Clangula hyemalis; Long-tailed Duck; Contaminants

Uranium and Thorium Content in Long-Tailed Ducks Clangula-Hyemalis - Szefer, P.; Falandysz, J. (Science of the Total Environment, 1983)
Keywords: Clangula hyemalis; Long-tailed Duck; Contaminants

Investigations of Trace Metals in Long-Tailed Duck Clangula-Hyemalis from the Gdansk Bay Poland - Szefer, P.; Falandysz, J. (Science of the Total Environment, 1983)
The determination of Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu, Pb, Cd, Co and Ni was carried out on liver, breast muscle, heart, stomach and feathers of 50 male and 40 female long-tailed ducks (C. hyemalis) staying in their winter quarters in Gdansk Bay during 1980-1981. There were no significant differences in the concentration of metals between male and female long-tailed ducks. The correlation coefficients between the concentration of metals in the liver and breast muscle were determined.
Keywords: Nonbreeding Seasons; Clangula hyemalis; Long-tailed Duck; Contaminants

Phylogenetics, Phylogeography, and Population Genetics of North American Sea Ducks (Tribe: Mergini) - Talbot, S. L., S. A. Sonsthagen, J. M. Pearce, and K. T. Scribner (Studies in Avian Biology, 2015)
Many environments occupied by North American sea ducks are remote and difficult to access, and as a result, detailed information about life history characteristics that drive population dynamics within and across species is limited. Nevertheless, progress on this front during the past several decades has benefited by the application of genetic technologies, and for several species, these technologies have allowed for concomitant tracking of population trends and genetic diversity, delineation of populations, assessment of gene flow among metapopulations, and understanding of migratory connectivity between breeding and wintering grounds. This chapter provides an overview of phylogenetic, phylogeographic, and population genetics studies of North American sea duck species, many of which have sought to understand the major and minor genetic divisions within and among sea duck species, and most of which have been conducted with the understanding that the maintenance of genetic variation in wild sea duck populations is fundamental to the group’s long-term persistence.
Keywords: Taxonomy; Population Delineation

A Bayesian approach to classification criteria for spectacled eiders - Taylor, B. L.; Wade, P. R.; Stehn, R. A.; Cochrane, J. F. (Ecological Applications, 1996)
To facilitate decisions to classify species according to risk of extinction, we used Bayesian methods to analyze trend data for the Spectacled Eider, an arctic sea duck. Trend data from three independent surveys of the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta were analyzed individually and in combination to yield posterior distributions for population growth rates. We used classification criteria developed by the recovery team for Spectacled Eiders that seek to equalize errors of under- or overprotecting the species. We conducted both a Bayesian decision analysis. and a frequentist (classical statistical inference) decision analysis. Bayesian decision analyses are computationally easier, yield basically the same results, and yield results that are easier to explain to nonscientists. With the exception of the aerial survey analysis of the 10 most recent years, both Bayesian and frequentist methods indicated that an endangered classification is warranted. The discrepancy between surveys warrants further research. Although the trend data are abundance indices, we used a preliminary estimate of absolute abundance to demonstrate how to calculate extinction distributions using the joint probability distributions for population growth rate and variance in growth rate generated by the Bayesian analysis. Recent apparent increases in abundance highlight the need for models that apply to declining and then recovering species.
Keywords: Conservation; Breeding Season; Somateria fischeri; Spectacled Eider; Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Techniques

STUDIES OF THE TIME BUDGET AND DAILY ACTIVITY OF COMMON EIDER SOMATERIA MOLLISSIMA DURING INCUBATION - Tertitski, G. M.; Semashko, E. V.; Cherenkov, A. E.; Semashko, V. Y. (MARINE ORNITHOLOGY, 2021)
In the Common Eider Somateria mollissima, only females incubate the clutch over a period of 25-28 days. Determining their schedule of nest absence, how long they are away, how often, and where they go can be problematic. They must also avoid nest predation while tending to their own needs. We used geolocators to investigate the behavior of incubating females on forested islands in Dolgaya Guba Bay (65 degrees 03'N, 035 degrees 47'E), White Sea, Russia. Data were obtained for 12 females: three in 2015 and 2016, four in 2017, and two in 2018. During the entire incubation period, females left their nests for the sea 12-28 times. The average duration at sea was 331.0 +/- 53.8 min, including 261.1 +/- 47.9 min during the darkest hours in otherwise 24-hour daylight. The patterns are similar to those of eiders nesting in lower, non-polar latitudes, where nights are dark.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 0 Total Times Cited: 0 Cited Reference Count: 20
Keywords: Common Eider; MASS; BEHAVIOR; Russia; geolocator; REVEAL INCUBATION; breeding behavior; incubation period; NEST ATTENDANCE; White Sea

Seabird foraging ranges as a preliminary tool for identifying candidate Marine Protected Areas - Thaxter, C. B.; Lascelles, B.; Sugar, K.; Cook, Ascp; Roos, S.; Bolton, M.; Langston, R. H. W.; Burton, N. H. K. (Biological Conservation, 2012)
Times Cited: 4 Thaxter, Chris B. Lascelles, Ben Sugar, Kate Cook, Aonghais S. C. P. Roos, Staffan Bolton, Mark Langston, Rowena H. W. Burton, Niall H. K. 5 SI
Keywords: Conservation; Sea Ducks

Auditory Brainstem Response in Sea Ducks and Diving Ducks - Therrien, S.; Carr, C.; Wells-Berlin, A. (Integrative and Comparative Biology, 2012)
Times Cited: 0 Therrien, Sara Carr, Catherine Wells-Berlin, Alicia Annual Meeting of the Society-for-Integrative-and-Comparative-Biology (SICB) JAN 03-07, 2012 Charleston, SC 0 1
Keywords: Physiology; Sea Ducks

Using satellite imagery as a planning tool for Harlequin duck inventory - Thibault, D.; Chalifoux, S.; Laperle, M. (International Journal of Remote Sensing, 1998)
Keywords: Harlequin duck; Histrionicus histrionicus; Techniques; Habitat

Endoparasites in common eiders Somateria mollissima from birds killed by an oil spill in the northern Wadden Sea - Thieltges, David W.; Hussel, Birgit; Baekgaard, Henrik (Journal of Sea Research, 2006)
Mass mortalities of common ciders Somateria mollissima have been ascribed to high parasite loads. However, the actual role of parasites in mortalities is disputed as in the case of a mass mortality of ciders in the Wadden Sea in the winter of 1999/2000. A critical evaluation of the role of parasites in eider mass mortalities is hampered by (1) a lack of data on actual parasite loads of the birds involved. (2) missing regional data for comparison, and (3) a lack of unbiased samples: investigations are often based on dead beached individuals, which are presumably the more heavily infected birds of a population and thus more likely to die and be washed ashore. Although published data on parasite loads in birds of the winter 1999/2000 mortality are available, no data on background parasitism in ciders from the Wadden Sea exist, making an evaluation of the potential role of parasites in this mortality event difficult. By investigating endoparasites of 102 ciders affected by an oil spill in the northern Wadden Sea in winter 1998/1999, we provide a data set of background parasitism in wintering eiders from the Wadden Sea. We found 13 different parasite taxa with high prevalence values (% infected birds) in the acanthocephalan Profilicollis botulus, the nematode Amidostomum acutum, cestodes and trematodes. In some taxa we observed pronounced differences in prevalence values between juvenile eiders and adults. as well as between adult sexes. The parasite composition shows that bivalves, crabs (Carcinus maenas) and other crustaceans are important sources of infections by being intermediate hosts. This is partly mirrored in the food content of eider stomachs where bivalves and crabs were predominantly found. Intensities of the acanthocephalan P. botulus, suspected of causing eider mortalities, were especially high in juveniles (1112 +/- 416 ind per infected host), but lower in adult males (40 +/- 7) and adult females (81 +/- 18). However, no extraordinary mortality event was observed in the winter of 1998/1999, indicating no or a very weak effect of the parasites on host condition. A comparison with the parasite loads of ciders from the mass mortality in the winter of 1999/2000 shows that parasite numbers were by no means exceptional for birds from the area. Hence, parasites alone are unlikely to have caused this mortality. Regional background parasite loads are important to differentiate between primary and secondary roles of parasites in anomalous mortality events. (c) 2006 Elsevier B.V All rights reserved.
Keywords: Common Eider; Nonbreeding Seasons; Somateria mollissima; Parasites

Conspecific brood parasitism in an upland-nesting bird: cues parasites use to select a nest - Thimot, N. J.; Titman, R. D.; Elliott, K. H.; Craik, S. R. (BEHAVIORAL ECOLOGY AND SOCIOBIOLOGY, 2020)
Among birds exhibiting conspecific brood parasitism (CBP), parasites demonstrate a variety of intriguing tactics for selecting a host nest, including preference for safe nests (i.e., avoiding nests depredated during the previous season). Brood parasites of birds that do not reuse nest sites, however, are limited to nest-site information available to them during the current breeding season. This study explores cues used by brood parasites in a population of red-breasted mergansers nesting in upland vegetation and sandy substrate that prohibits reuse of nest sites in consecutive years. Nest-site and host traits were measured for 33 parasitized and 23 non-parasitized nests. There was no association between CBP and nest-site traits potentially providing cues about nest safety from avian predators (concealment and density of nesting larids), likely due to very low rates of egg predation. Distance to shore for parasitized nests was slightly greater than for unparasitized nests. Parasites did not select nests in relation to host age, mass, date of nest initiation, or stage of nesting (laying or incubation). Artificial nests were used to simulate natural nests without a host and to assess whether host presence serves as a cue for parasites. The proportion of natural nests receiving >= 1 foreign egg (60% of 15 nests) was thrice that for artificial nests (21% of 14 nests). Some aspect of host presence may therefore be an important, but not necessary, cue for brood parasites targeting nests that are heavily concealed in uplands.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 3 Total Times Cited: 4 Cited Reference Count: 71
Keywords: DUCKS; ECOLOGY; REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS; Conspecific brood parasitism; FREQUENCY; PREDATION; COSTS; GOLDENEYE BUCEPHALA-CLANGULA; AGE; Waterfowl; Alternative breeding strategies; AMERICAN COOTS; Nest-site and host traits; RED-BREASTED MERGANSERS

Some new notes considering the Common Eider's Somateria mollissima foraging biology - Thingstad, Per Gustav; Hokstad, Stein; Frengen, Otto (Fauna (Oslo), 2000)
Ten Common Eiders were collected from the Krakvag shallow, outside the Trondheimsfjord, in April 1996. Even though they were collected from the same area, the Eiders showed a diverse and individually different food preference. Ensis spp. (up to 11 cm long!), Mytilus edulis, Acmaea spp., and Hinia spp. were the most abundant food items. Two of the Eiders had selectively taken only Ensis spp., one had taken only Hinia spp. and one Eider took only Carcinus maenas (one of the items eaten had a carapax-width of 7 cm). From other localities in the Trondheimsfjord area, also selective fish foraging was reported this winter, as great numbers of Eiders and other diving ducks have been picking up abundant numbers of semi-buried Sandeels Ammodytes spp. (only A. tobianus is verified) from sandy substrate on shallow sea bottom.
Keywords: Common Eider; Nonbreeding Seasons; Somateria mollissima; Trophic Interactions

Harlequin Ducks in Newfoundland - Thomas, Peter W. (Waterbirds, 2008)
Relatively low numbers of Harlequin Ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus) are present year-round in Newfoundland, with breeding, molting and wintering at specific areas. Breeding is largely restricted to the Great Northern Peninsula, but there is some evidence of breeding in remote areas of the eastern part of the island. A large molting concentration is present on the Grey Islands, cast of the Northern Peninsula. Harlequin Ducks winter on the south coast of Newfoundland, with the largest concentration at Cape St. Mary's. Counts from Cape St. Mary's indicated Harlequin Ducks decreased through the 1980s, but have been increasing rapidly since the early 1990s. Although anecdotal, information from earl), Sources suggests populations of Harlequin Ducks in Newfoundland are much reduced. Chronic oiling and misidentification of Harlequin Ducks by hunters remain as threats, while forestry and hydroelectric development may be potential sources of habitat reduction.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Nonbreeding Seasons; Harlequin duck; Histrionicus histrionicus

Movements of Harlequin Ducks in Eastern North America - Thomas, Peter W.; Mittelhauser, Glen H.; Chubbs, Tony E.; Trimper, Perry G.; Goudie, R. Ian; Robertson, Gregory J.; Brodeur, Serge; Robert, Michel; Gilliland, Scott G.; Savard, Jean-Pierre L. (Waterbirds, 2008)
The movements of a total of 948 Harlequin Ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus) banded in eastern North America and Greenland front 1996-2003 (313 breeding, 186 molting/staging, and 449 wintering) were examined. Regular resighting and recapture projects have been underway at the Gannet Islands, Labrador, as well as Jericho Bay, Maine. Less consistent observations have been conducted on the Gaspe Peninsula, Quebec, and incidental observations were obtained from the public. Affiliations between breeding, molting and wintering sites were assessed in an effort to determine movement patterns and the level of geographic separation. Population affiliations indicated by past satellite telemetry studies were verified by the capture-recapture data. Absolute geographic separation between the eastern North American wintering population and the Greenland wintering population could not be determined.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Nonbreeding Seasons; Harlequin duck; Histrionicus histrionicus; Dispersal; Population Delineation

Apparent Survival of Male Harlequin Ducks Molting at the Gannet Islands, Labrador - Thomas, Peter W.; Robertson, Gregory J. (Waterbirds, 2008)
Survival rates are an essential parameter for understanding the dynamics and Status of wild populations. Apparent survival (the combined probability of surviving and returning to a site) and capture rates were estimated for male Harlequin Ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus) (second-year, N = 30, adult, N = 83) that were captured and/or resighted on the Gannet Islands, Labrador, from 1999-2003. Most birds available for analysis were first captured locally (N 74), although a significant number were originally banded on wintering grounds in Maine (N = 36), and the remaining three were banded on breeding grounds. Second-year male apparent Survival rates were low (0.466 +/- 0.118; 95% PLI: 0.256 - 0.689), and different front adult rates (0.744 +/- 0.045; 0.647 - 0.822), likely due to increased dispersal of young birds. There was little evidence for annual variation in survival rates, but samples sizes were low. Apparent survival rates of male Harlequin Ducks were lower than found in most studies, suggesting that some males emigrate from the Gannet. Islands molting site, but do confirm that there is some fidelity to molting sites, similar to observations of the Pacific population.
Keywords: Nonbreeding Seasons; Harlequin duck; Histrionicus histrionicus; Dispersal; Population Dynamics; Survival

Role of food in territoriality and egg production of Buffleheads (Bucephala albeola) and Barrow's Goldeneyes (Bucephala islandica) - Thompson, Jonathan E.; Ankney, C. Davison (Auk, 2002)
Buffleheads (Bucephala albeola) and the North American population of Barrow's Goldeneyes (Bucephala islandica) typically breed in boreal and montane regions where food is less available relative to most habitat s used by temperate nesting ducks. We investigated diets and digestive organ morphology of sympatrically breeding female Buffleheads and Barrow's Goldeneyes in central British Columbia. Because those congeners exhibit interspecific aggression in defense of breeding territories, we predicted that competition for food could be a principal factor in evolution of that behavior. We also hypothesized that breeding Buffleheads would show greater variation in digestive organ morphology than Barrow's Goldeneyes because of their smaller body size and consequently greater reliance on their diet to meet nutritional requirements for egg production. Both species fed predominantly on aquatic insects during all reproductive periods, particularly larvae of damselflies (Zygoptera), midges (Chironomidae), and phantom midges (Chaoborinae). Plant foods, primarily seeds of submergent and emergent vegetation, generally represented <15% of diets in both species. Diets of breeding female Buffleheads and Barrow's Goldeneyes were similar throughout reproduction, hence competition for food has likely been a factor in evolution of territorial aggression between those species. The digestive tract morphology of Buffleheads was more variable than that of Barrow's Goldeneyes suggesting that the former relied more on dietary nutrients during reproduction than did their larger congener.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Physiology; Trophic Interactions; Bucephala albeola; Bufflehead; Barrow's Goldeneye; Bucephala islandica

The flight speed of a Red-breasted Merganser - Thompson, Max C. (Condor, 1961)
Keywords: Behavior; Mergus serrator; Red-breasted merganser

Common Eider and Herring Gull as Contaminant Indicators of Different Ecological Niches of an Urban Fjord System - Thorstensen, H.; Ruus, A.; Helberg, M.; Baek, K.; Enge, E. K.; Borga, K. (INTEGRATED ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT, 2021)
Seabirds like gulls are common indicators in contaminant monitoring. The herring gull (Larus argentatus) is a generalist with a broad range of dietary sources, possibly introducing a weakness in its representativeness of aquatic contamination. To investigate the herring gull as an indicator of contamination in an urban-influenced fjord, the Norwegian Oslofjord, we compared concentrations of a range of lipophilic and protein-associated organohalogen contaminants (OHCs), Hg, and dietary markers in blood (n = 15), and eggs (n = 15) between the herring gull and the strict marine-feeding common eider(Somateria mollissima)in the breeding period of May 2017. Dietary markers showed that the herring gull was less representative of the marine food web than the common eider. We found higher concentrations of lipophilic OHCs (wet weight and lipid weight) and Hg (dry weight) in the blood of common eider (mean +/- SE n-ary sumation PCB = 210 +/- 126 ng/g ww, 60 600 +/- 28 300 ng/g lw; mean Hg = 4.94 +/- 0.438 ng/g dw) than of the herring gull (mean +/- SE n-ary sumation PCB = 19.0 +/- 15.6 ng/g ww, 1210 +/- 1510 ng/g lw; mean Hg = 4.26 +/- 0.438 ng/g dw). Eggs gave opposite results; higher wet weight and lipid weight OHC concentrations in the herring gull (mean +/- SE n-ary sumation PCB = 257 +/- 203 ng/g ww, 3240 +/- 2610 ng/g lw) than the common eider (mean +/- SE n-ary sumation PCB = 18.2 +/- 20.8 ng/g ww, 101 +/- 121 ng/g lw), resulting in higher OHC maternal transfer ratios in gulls than eiders. We suggest that the matrix differences are due to fasting during incubation in the common eider. We suggest that in urban areas, herring gull might not be representative as an indicator of marine contamination but rather urban contaminant exposure. The common eider is a better indicator of marine pollution in the Oslofjord. The results are influenced by the matrix choice, as breeding strategy affects lipid dynamics regarding the transfer of lipids and contaminants to eggs and remobilization of contaminants from lipids to blood during incubation, when blood is drawn from the mother. Our results illustrate the benefit of a multispecies approach for a thorough picture of contaminant status in urban marine ecosystems.Integr Environ Assess Manag2020;00:1-12. (c) 2020 The Authors.Integrated Environmental Assessment and Managementpublished by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of Society of Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry (SETAC)
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 7 Total Times Cited: 7 Cited Reference Count: 78
Keywords: SOMATERIA-MOLLISSIMA; Common eider; LARUS-ARGENTATUS; Mercury; EGGS; PERFLUOROALKYL SUBSTANCES; SELENIUM; Persistent organic pollutants; Environmental monitoring; GREAT-LAKES; Herring gull; MATERNAL TRANSFER; POLLUTANTS; SITES SPANNING ATLANTIC; TROPHIC TRANSFER

Complex role of predators in structuring soft-sediment macrobenthic communities: Implications of changes in spatial scale for experimental studies - Thrush, S. E. (Australian Journal of Ecology, 1999)
Thrush, SE

Alien eggs in duck nests: brood parasitism or a help from Grandma? - Tiedemann, R.; Paulus, K. B.; Havenstein, K.; Thorstensen, S.; Petersen, A.; Lyngs, P.; Milinkovitch, M. C. (Molecular Ecology, 2011)
Times Cited: 5 Tiedemann, Ralph Paulus, Kirsten B. Havenstein, Katja Thorstensen, Sverrir Petersen, Aevar Lyngs, Peter Milinkovitch, Michel C. 5
Keywords: Breeding Season; Common Goldeneye; behavior; bucephala clangula

Mitochondrial DNA and microsatellite variation in the eider duck (Somateria mollissima) indicate stepwise postglacial colonization of Europe and limited current long-distance dispersal - Tiedemann, R.; Paulus, K. B.; Scheer, M.; von Kistowski, K. G.; Skirnisson, K.; Bloch, D.; Dam, M. (Molecular Ecology, 2004)
To unravel the postglacial colonization history and the current intercolony dispersal in the common eider, Somateria mollissima, we analysed genetic variation at a part of the mitochondrial control region and five unlinked autosomal microsatellite loci in 175 eiders from 11 breeding colonies, covering the entire European distribution range of this species. As a result of extreme female philopatry, mitochondrial DNA differentiation is substantial both among local colonies and among distant geographical regions. Our study further corroborates the previous hypothesis of a single Pleistocene refugium for European eiders. A nested clade analysis on mitochondrial haplotypes suggests that (i) the Baltic Sea eider population is genetically closest to a presumably ancestral population and that (ii) the postglacial recolonization progressed in a stepwise fashion via the North Sea region and the Faroe Islands to Iceland. Current long-distance dispersal is limited. Differentiation among colonies is much less pronounced at microsatellite loci. The geographical pattern of this nuclear genetic variation is to a large extent explained by isolation by distance. As female dispersal is very limited, the geographical pattern of nuclear variation is probably explained by male-mediated gene flow among breeding colonies. Our study provides genetic evidence for the assumed prominent postglacial colonization route shaping the present terrestrial fauna of the North Atlantic islands Iceland and the Faroes. It suggests that this colonization had been a stepwise process originating in continental Europe. It is the first molecular study on eider duck populations covering their entire European distribution range.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Dispersal; Population Delineation; Phylogeography

On sex-specific dispersal and mating tactics in the common eider somateria mollissima as inferred from the genetic structure of breeding colonies - Tiedemann, Ralph; Von Kistowski, Kristin G.; Noer, Henning (Behaviour, 1999)
The common eider is a colony breeding seaduck with extreme female philopatry. Molecular genetic techniques (mtDNA sequencing and microsatellite analysis) were applied on Baltic eiders to infer sex-specific dispersal and mating tactics among breeding colonies with different seasonal migration behaviour, i.e. sedentary, short distance migratory, and long distance migratory. MtDNA patterns show pronounced differentiation among colonies in maternally inherited traits. The estimated number of exchanged females per generation was 1.0-1.4. Smaller colonies showed a lower level of genetic variation in mtDNA. Microsatellite patterns suggest male-mediated gene flow to be sufficient for preventing inbreeding even in smaller colonies. However, though eiders of different geographic origin mix on wintering grounds, where mating occurs, mate choice is not random: The bias towards mates of similar geographic origin might reflect a different time of arrival at the wintering ground for eiders of different origin, together with the adaptive significance of early pair formation.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Dispersal; Population Delineation

Food Habits of Common Mergansers in the Northcentral USA Mergus-Merganser Fish - Timken, R. L.; Anderson, B. W. (Journal of Wildlife Management, 1969)
Keywords: Trophic Interactions; Common merganser; Mergus merganser

Does laying order influence growth rates of Common Eider ducklings? A skeptical view and reply - Timmermans, Steven T. A.; Ankney, C. Davison; Erikstad, Kjell Einar; Tveraa, Torkild; Bustnes, Jan Ove (Journal of Avian Biology, 1999)
Keywords: Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Physiology

Annual Bird Mortality in the Bitumen Tailings Ponds in Northeastern Alberta, Canada - Timoney, Kevin P.; Ronconi, Robert A. (Wilson Journal of Ornithology, 2010)
Open pit bitumen extraction is capable of causing mass mortality events of resident and migratory birds. We investigated annual avian mortality in the tailings ponds of the Athabasca tar sands region, in northeastern Alberta, Canada. We analyzed three types of data: government-industry reported mortalities; empirical studies of bird deaths at tailings ponds; and rates of landing, oiling, and mortality to quantify annual bird mortality due to exposure to tailings ponds. Ad hoc self-reported data from industry indicate an annual mortality due to tailings pond exposure in northeastern Alberta of 65 birds. The self-reported data were internally inconsistent and appeared to underestimate actual mortality. Scientific data indicate an annual mortality in the range of 458 to 5,029 birds, which represents an unknown fraction of true mortality. Government-overseen monitoring within a statistically valid design, standardized across all facilities, is needed. Systematic monitoring and accurate, timely reporting would provide data useful to all concerned with bird conservation and management in the tar sands region.
Keywords: Sea Ducks - General; Bucephala clangula; Common Goldeneye; Survival

An Evaluation of Techniques to Measure Contour Feather Molt in Ducks - Titman, R. D.; Lagrenade, M. C.; Miller, M. R. (Journal of Wildlife Management, 1990)
We evaluated 3 techniques (air jet, flat skin, grab sample) to assess molt in dead waterfowl (green-winged teal [Anas crecca] and king eider [Somateria spectabilis]). The air jet technique was fast and required no specimen preparation. The flat skin technique required lengthy preparation time after which molt was assessed quickly. Both techniques underestimated the extent of molt (P < 0.01). The grab sample technique needed no preparations but involved time-consuming counting to obtain the molt assessment. The grab sample was preferred when study skins did not need to be preserved because it was easy to conduct, and it was repeatable and more accurate than the other techniques.
Keywords: Molt; King Eider; Somateria spectabilis; Techniques

Parasitism of Mallard Anas-Platyrhynchos Nests by Common Goldeneyes Bucephala-Clangula - Titman, R. D.; Lowther, J. K. (Canadian Field-Naturalist, 1971)
Keywords: Behavior; Breeding Season; Bucephala clangula; Common Goldeneye