Adoption of Spectacled Eider Ducklings by Arctic Loons - Abraham, K. F. (Condor, 1978)
Keywords: Behavior; Breeding Season; Somateria fischeri; Spectacled Eider

Summer Birds of East Bay Southampton Island Northwest Territories Canada - Abraham, K. F.; Ankney, C. D. (Canadian Field-Naturalist, 1986)
Forty-one species of birds were observed in the summers of 1979 and 1980 along the south shore of East Bay, Southampton Island. The first certain evidence was obtained of Red Knot (Calidris canutus) and Sanderling (Calidris alba) nesting on Southampton Island. The abundance of several species, particularly Common Eider (Somateria molissima) and Whimbrel (Numenius phaeopus), differed from the other Southampton Island locations where birds have been studied. No species new to the island were recorded.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Common Eider; Sea Ducks - General

White-winged scoter: Melanitta fusca - Academy Of Natural Sciences Of, Philadelphia (Birds of North America, 1997)
Keywords: Breeding Season; Melanitta fusca; Nonbreeding Seasons; White-winged Scoter

Surf Scoter: Melanitta perspicillata - Academy Of Natural Sciences Of, Philadelphia (Birds of North America, 1998)
Keywords: Breeding Season; Nonbreeding Seasons; Melanitta perspicillata; Surf Scoter

Time-activity budgets of Harlequin Ducks molting in the Gannet Islands, Labrador - Adams, Peter A.; Robertson, Gregory J.; Jones, Ian L. (Condor, 2000)
We studied the time-activity budgets of Harlequin Ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus) molting at the Gannet Islands, Labrador in the summer of 1998. For the entire population, a large proportion of time was spent hauled out of the water (61.4%), and resting (53.5%). Only a small proportion of time was spent foraging (11.6%). Male Harlequin Ducks undergoing the pre-basic molt were hauled out of the water significantly more (92.2%) than males in basic plumage (8.1%). Males undergoing the pre-basic body feather molt foraged significantly less (1.7%) than males in basic plumage (17.7%). Harlequin Ducks do not appear to increase their food intake to meet the nutritional requirements of molt. Instead they may try to reduce thermoregulatory and maintenance costs by engaging in activities that do not consume much energy, and by staying out of cold water while their plumage is not intact. Furthermore, they may deliberately lose body mass while molting to regain the ability to fly at an earlier stage of wing molt.
Keywords: Behavior; Nonbreeding Seasons; Harlequin duck; Histrionicus histrionicus; Molt

Projected effects of climate change on the distribution and abundance of breeding waterfowl in Eastern Canada - Adde, A.; Stralberg, D.; Logan, T.; Lepage, C.; Cumming, S.; Darveau, M. (CLIMATIC CHANGE, 2020)
As breeding areas are becoming warmer and wetter, climatic changes are likely to affect the distributions of millions of waterfowl in Eastern Canada. The objective of this study was to assess the potential effects of climate change on the breeding distribution and abundance of 12 common waterfowl species, by using a climate envelope modeling approach. Our response variables were species counts on 317 helicopter plots (25 km(2)) averaged over 22 years (1996-2017). We applied a covariate selection procedure to select the best subset of a panel of 170 climate covariates for each species, which we then used to fit quantile regression forest models. Climate change projections were applied to the waterfowl models to infer 2011-2100 abundances. From the projected abundances, we computed climate suitability indices that accounted for potential temporal mismatches between climate change and the biota, as well as the expected velocity of climate change. On average, with a maximum of 4 covariates per model, the variance explained was 41% for out-of-bag predictions. Overall, the magnitude of absolute projected changes peaked under the "high" greenhouse gas concentration trajectory (RCP8.5) and at the end of the century (2071-2100). Species-specific projections indicated that climate change would potentially increase the abundance and core distributions of 7/12 species, whereas 5/12 species would experience a decrease. In particular, large decreases were projected for Barrow's goldeneye, an imperiled boreal cavity nester. Our spatially explicit indices of climate suitability deliver important information for targeting areas to preserve waterfowl, ecosystems, and the services they provide.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 2 Total Times Cited: 2 Cited Reference Count: 75
Keywords: Conservation; BIRDS; Breeding waterfowl; Climate change; Climate envelope modeling; Climate suitability; COMMUNITIES; CONSEQUENCES; Eastern Canada; ENVELOPE MODELS; NICHE; NORTH; TRACKING; VULNERABILITY; WETLANDS

Seasonal migration dynamics of the long-tailed duck (Clangula hyemalis), the common scoter (Melanitta nigra), and the velvet scoter (Melanitta fusca) in Estonia - Ader, A.; Kespaik, J. (Gibier Faune Sauvage, 1996)
Keywords: Nonbreeding Seasons; Clangula hyemalis; Long-tailed Duck; Migration

Social Courtship and Pair Bonding of Common Goldeneyes Bucephala-Clangula Wintering in Minnesota USA - Afton, A. D.; Sayler, R. D. (Canadian Field-Naturalist, 1982)
Courtship behavior and displayes of common goldeneyes (B. clangula) wintering on the Mississippi River in Minneapolis, Minnesota were studied. Age, pair status and spatial position in the display group affected relative frequencies of certain displays performed by males. Display flights were not observed before late Jan. and did not become frequent until late Feb. This aerial display apparently functions to encourage the female to follow the displaying male away from the display group. Wintering goldeneyes began courtship and pairing in Dec., long before possible reproduction. Some adult males were unwilling or unable to complete courtship sequences to the point of copulation even when approached by a soliciting female and undisturbed by other males. Early pairbond formation entails costs and benefits which vary for the sexes, and in some instances females may be ready to pair before males, a situation indicative of sexual conflict in maximizing their reproductive interests.
Keywords: Behavior; Nonbreeding Seasons; Bucephala clangula; Common Goldeneye

Declines in marine bird populations in Prince William Sound, Alaska coincident with a climatic regime shift - Agler, Beverly A.; Kendall, Steven J.; Irons, David B.; Klosiewski, Steven P. (Waterbirds, 1999)
Analyses of marine bird surveys conducted in Prince William Sound, Alaska in July 1972 were compared to surveys in July 1989, 1990, 1991, and 1993 and indicated that populations of several taxa of marine birds that prey on fish have declined in Prince William Sound, but most taxa that feed on other prey species, such as benthic invertebrates, have not declined. Red-throated Loon (Gavia stellata), Pacific Loon (G. pacifica), cormorant (Phalacrocorax spp.), Surf Scoter (Melanitta perspicillata), Bonaparte's Gull (Larus philadelphia), terns (Sterna spp.), Pigeon Guillemot (Cepphus columba), Brachyramphus murrelets (Brachyramphus marmoratus and B. brevirostris), Parakeet Auklet (Cyclorrhynchus psittacula), Tufted Puffin (Fratercula cirrhata), and Horned Puffin (Fratercula corniculata) populations declined by >50%. Most of these are piscivores, feeding on schooling fish. Some non-piscivorous taxa, such as Harlequin Ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus), goldeneyes (Bucephala clangula and islandica), and Black Oyster-catchers (Haematopus bachmani), have increased in Prince William Sound between 1972 and 1989-1993, although a portion of the population was killed by the T/V Exxon Valdez oil spill. Declines in piscivorous bird populations also have been documented in the Gulf of Alaska, the Bering Sea, and along the California coast in the past two decades and have been coincidental to changes in forage fish species in the North Pacific Ocean. Many of the declines appear to be related to changes in forage fish abundance that occurred during a climatic regime shift in the north Pacific Ocean, although some taxa were also affected by the Exxon Valdez oil spill.
Keywords: Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Sea Ducks - General

Behavioural tactics at nest visits differ between parasites and hosts in a brood-parasitic duck - Ahlund, Matti (Animal Behaviour, 2005)
Whether conspecific brood parasitism is adaptive is a matter of debate. It may just be accidental when suitable nest sites are scarce. I tested this and other hypotheses, using video recordings and quantitative behavioural observations at nestboxes of individually marked common goldeneyes, Bucephala clangula. In 11 of 13 parasitized nests filmed, parasite behaviour differed markedly from that of hosts during most of the egg-laying sequence. Hosts typically started and laid the most eggs in the nest, covered the clutch when leaving it, and deposited down. Parasites covered the eggs poorly and did not deposit down. Hosts spent increasing time on the nest over the laying sequence, whereas parasites did not. Parasites tended to lay eggs later than hosts in the morning, possibly in response to nest guarding by hosts. When in the nest, hosts usually prevented females from entering, but parasites rarely did so. Of 84 parasitic eggs, 85% were laid by 'true parasites, and 15% by females that behaved like hosts but were eventually displaced by another female. Most (73%) of the 'truly' parasitic eggs were from females that were marked as adults previously, and 27% from new recruits. Parasitism in this goldeneye population is thus usually an alternative behavioural tactic, distinctly different from the behaviour of hosts, and not simply a side-effect of competition between females over the same nest.
Keywords: Behavior; Breeding Season; Bucephala clangula; Common Goldeneye

Inter- and intraclutch variation in egg mercury levels in marine bird species from the Canadian Arctic - Akearok, Jason A.; Hebert, Craig E.; Braune, Birgit M.; Mallory, Mark L. (Science of the Total Environment, 2010)
Mercury (Hg) is a toxic metal that has been of increasing concern in the Canadian Arctic. We measured total Hg in eggs of three marine birds (Arctic terns Sterna paradisaea, common eiders Somateria mollissima borealis, long-tailed ducks Clangula hyemalis) that breed in the Canadian Arctic, to compare Hg laying order effects from the same clutch and to examine Hg among species. Early-laid eggs of all three species had 24-48% higher Hg concentrations than late laid eggs. Arctic terns had approximately twice the concentration of Hg in their eggs as the two duck species, and Hg in eider eggs from the High Arctic was higher than Hg in eggs from the Low Arctic. Higher Hg in tern eggs was consistent with this species occupying a higher trophic position in marine food webs, as indicated by stable nitrogen isotope (delta N-15) values. The egg-laying sequence may need to be considered for Hg biomonitoring studies where small samples sizes are planned, and early eggs may be preferable for such studies since early eggs may be more representative of potential maximum levels of Hg in the marine food webs. Crown Copyright (C) 2009 Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Common Eider; Clangula hyemalis; Long-tailed Duck; Contaminants; Somateria mollissima

Effects of No-2 Fuel Oil on Common Eider Eggs - Albers, P. H.; Szaro, R. C. (Marine Pollution Bulletin, 1978)
An oil spill near a breeding colony could result in the transfer of oil from the plumage and feet of incubating birds to their eggs. Microliter amounts of No. 2 fuel oil were applied externally to common eider [Somateria mollissima] eggs in an island breeding colony in Maine [USA]. Clutches of eggs treated with 20 .mu.l of fuel oil had significantly greater embryonic mortality than the control clutches when they were examined 7 days after treatment. The results are similar to those of an earlier study of artificially incubated common eider eggs and indicate that nest site conditions do not affect embryotoxicity of No. 2 fuel oil.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Common Eider; Contaminants; Somateria mollissima; Productivity

Migration patterns of tundra birds: Tracking radar observations along the Northeast Passage - Alerstam, Thomas; Gudmundsson, Gudmundur A. (Arctic, 1999)
Bird migration was recorded by tracking radar and visual observations at 15 study sites, situated between 50degreeE and 170degreeE along the Northeast Passage, during a ship-based expedition in July and August 1994. A total of 1087 radar tracks (average duration 220 s) of bird flocks on postbreeding migration were recorded. Migration was dominated by waders and to a certain degree also skuas (especially pomarine skua Stercorarius pomarinus). Terns, gulls, ducks, and geese were also among the migrants tracked by radar. The radar data revealed a major migratory divide at about 100degreeE (Taymyr Peninsula), with mainly eastbound migration to the east of this divide, and mainly westbound migration to the west of it. The main stream of eastbound migration was directed toward the sector 90-120degree and that of westbound migration toward the sector 240-270degree; these directions are broadly in parallel with the coasts of the Arctic Ocean east and west of the Taymyr Peninsula, respectively. There was also important ENE migration, which provided strong indications of long-distance flights along orthodrome-like routes directly between Siberia and North America, across vast expanses of the Arctic Ocean pack ice. Analysis of flight directions in relation to wind indicated complete compensation for wind drift. Mean flight altitude was 1.3 km, and the birds regularly travelled at high altitudes above 3 km (9% of the tracks) up to a maximum height of 4.8 km. They preferred to migrate on occasions and at altitudes with following winds; such conditions provided an average gain in speed of 4.6 m/s. There were also recurrent cases of birds migrating in tailwinds of gale force, between 18 and 24 m/s. The birds' airspeed varied between 8 and 22 m/s, with a mean of 14 m/s. Airspeed was significantly correlated with altitude, wind, and vertical speed and seemed to be intermediate between the speeds for minimum power and maximum range predicted by aerodynamic theory.
Keywords: Sea Ducks - General; Nonbreeding Seasons; Migration

Flight speeds among bird species: Allometric and phylogenetic effects - Alerstam, Thomas; Rosen, Mikael; Backman, Johan; Ericson, Per G. P.; Hellgren, Olof (PLoS Biology, 2007)
Flight speed is expected to increase with mass and wing loading among flying animals and aircraft for fundamental aerodynamic reasons. Assuming geometrical and dynamical similarity, cruising flight speed is predicted to vary as (body mass)(1/6) and (wing loading)(1/2) among bird species. To test these scaling rules and the general importance of mass and wing loading for bird flight speeds, we used tracking radar to measure flapping flight speeds of individuals or flocks of migrating birds visually identified to species as well as their altitude and winds at the altitudes where the birds were flying. Equivalent airspeeds (airspeeds corrected to sea level air density, U-e) of 138 species, ranging 0.01-10 kg in mass, were analysed in relation to biometry and phylogeny. Scaling exponents in relation to mass and wing loading were significantly smaller than predicted (about 0.12 and 0.32, respectively, with similar results for analyses based on species and independent phylogenetic contrasts). These low scaling exponents may be the result of evolutionary restrictions on bird flight-speed range, counteracting too slow flight speeds among species with low wing loading and too fast speeds among species with high wing loading. This compression of speed range is partly attained through geometric differences, with aspect ratio showing a positive relationship with body mass and wing loading, but additional factors are required to fully explain the small scaling exponent of U-e in relation to wing loading. Furthermore, mass and wing loading accounted for only a limited proportion of the variation in U-e. Phylogeny was a powerful factor, in combination with wing loading, to account for the variation in U-e. These results demonstrate that functional flight adaptations and constraints associated with different evolutionary lineages have an important influence on cruising flapping flight speed that goes beyond the general aerodynamic scaling effects of mass and wing loading.
Keywords: Behavior; Sea Ducks - General; Physiology

Age-specific in situ recruitment of female King Eiders estimated with mark-recapture - Alisauskas, R. T.; Kellett, D. K. (Auk, 2014)
In addition to estimating survival probability of adult birds, estimating recruitment of new individuals into avian breeding populations is fundamental to understanding rates of population change. Notions about mean recruitment age can lead to erroneous conclusions about population projections if the probability of capture is ignored. We calculated the mean recruitment age of King Eiders (Somateria spectabilis) using two methods: (1) a naive estimate based strictly on observed age at first recapture of marked ducklings as nesting females; and (2) reversed capture histories, which incorporate probability of capture into estimates. From 1996 to 2009, we marked 2,390 King Eider ducklings, 53 of which were recaptured from 2007 to 2010 as females nesting at Karrak Lake, Nunavut, in Canada's Central Arctic region. The naive approach estimated mean (+/- 95% CL) recruitment age as 4.58 +/- 0.42 yr, whereas reversed capture histories estimated mean recruitment age as 4.08 +/- 0.34 yr. We illustrate the influence of recruitment age (range: 3-9 yr) on the predicted annual rate of population change. We fit numerous ecological covariates to test for cohort effects, phenology of vernal thaw, absolute and relative nesting phenology of mothers, maternal body size, density dependence, and relative clutch size on age-specific recruitment probability. There was good support for a negative effect of relative initiation date of nests that produced ducklings, and equivocal support for an additive negative influence of vernal thaw at the age that ducklings were recruited as breeders. We discuss the implications of variation in female recruitment age for King Eider population biology and fitness. More broadly, we reiterate previous advice (e.g., Pradel et al. 1997, Schwarz and Arnason 2000), against calculation of mean recruitment age from age at first capture, regardless of study species, particularly when detection probability of recruits is low.
Alisauskas, Ray T. Kellett, Dana K.
Keywords: Breeding season; King Eider; Population dynamics; Somateria spectabilis

Components of population growth rate for White-winged Scoters in Saskatchewan,Canada - Alisauskas, R. T.; Traylor, J. J.; Swoboda, C. J.; Kehoe, F. P. (Animal Biodiversity and Conservation, 2004)
Components of population growth rate for White-winged Scoters in Saskatchewan, Canada.- Breeding range and abundance of White-winged Scoters (Melanitta fusca deglandi) have declined in northwestern North America. Hypotheses proposed to account for this trend are that survival and/or recruitment of females had declined. Thus, we used a reverse-time capture-recapture approach to directly estimate survival, seniority and capture probabilities for females of breeding age at Redberry Lake, Saskatchewan, Canada for 1975-1980 and 2000-2003. We also estimated population size of breeding females for 1975-1985 and 2000-2003 using capture-recapture data. Initially, this local population was in serious decline [95% CL (lambda(-<^>)(75-80)) = 0.89 +/- 0.09], but has since stabilized and may be slowly increasing [95% CL (lambda(-<^>)(00-03)) = 1.07 +/- 0.11]. This reversal in trajectory apparently resulted from increased recruitment rather than increased apparent survival. Importantly, recent recruitment of adult females appeared to be driven solely by immigration of adult females with no detectable in situ recruitment, suggesting a hypothesis that the local population is being rescued by females produced elsewhere.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Melanitta fusca; White-winged Scoter; Dispersal; Population Dynamics; Population Model; Survival

Breeding Costs, Nutrient Reserves, and Cross-Seasonal Effects: Dealing with Deficits in Sea Ducks - Alisauskas, R. T. and J.-M. Devink (Studies in Avian Biology, 2015)
We reviewed reproductive life histories and associated nutritional requirements of egg production and incubation for 18 species and subspecies of sea ducks that breed in North America. We also refer to life histories of some European subspecies. We found that basic information for several species remains unavailable for egg composition, egg-laying rates, follicular growth rates and estimates of incubation constancy. Relationships among various life-history traits associated with egg production and incubation by sea ducks revealed that phylogeny and body mass both affect daily and total energetic costs. For example, regression of some life-history traits associated with egg production that were related to body mass across all species or subspecies under consideration showed different patterns when compared between Somatereae (eiders) and Mergeae (non-eiders). Also missing for most species were estimates of the proportion of egg nutrients supplied by endogenous stores. Inferences about nutrient supply to eggs were highly variable, regardless of whether estimation relied on analysis of stable isotopes or the regression of cumulative nutrient production on somatic nutrient reserves. The proportion of egg nutrient supplied by endogenous reserves showed no clear pattern, judging from the lack of relationship to other life history traits. There is a general lack of understanding of whether endogenous nutrient reserves used in reproduction are acquired by sea ducks from wintering habitat, distant staging or those areas proximal to nesting sites. The geographic sourcing of nutrients used in sea duck reproduction should receive additional study because such areas may influence population-level recruitment. Reported incubation constancy in sea ducks ranged from 81% to 99%, and reflected the range of strategies to source nutrients for reproduction. Based on differences in body mass before and after incubation, we estimated that between 8% and 94% of energy requirements during incubation by different species or subspecies were met with endogenous reserves. The gradient in reliance on endogenous nutrients during incubation across species was a strong function of body mass (r2 = 0.84). We also discuss the potential interplay of contaminants, nutrition and reproduction, and suggest that determination of nutrient reserve thresholds for breeding are an important research goal.
Keywords: Breeding season; Energetics and Nutrition

Capturing and Marking Oldsquaws - Alison, R. (Bird-Banding, 1975)
Keywords: Clangula hyemalis; Long-tailed Duck; Techniques

Oldsquaw Brood Behavior - Alison, R. M. (Bird-Banding, 1976)
Keywords: Behavior; Breeding Season; Clangula hyemalis; Long-tailed Duck

Homing of Subadult Oldsquaws - Alison, R. M. (Auk, 1977)
Keywords: Clangula hyemalis; Long-tailed Duck; Dispersal

Kleptoparasitism of Herring Gulls taking eider eggs by Canada Geese - Allard, Karel; Gilchrist, H. Grant (Waterbirds, 2002)
Nesting in association with species that aggressively attack predators may reduce nest predation in some birds. For example, nesting ducks sometimes benefit from aggressive defence by nesting Canada Geese (Branta canadensis). Although Common Eiders (Somateria mollissima) commonly nest with gulls (Larus spp.), the costs and benefits for eiders of this association remain uncertain. Over two years, 32 instances of kleptoparasitism of Herring Gulls (Larus argentatus) by Canada Geese were recorded in arctic Canada. The Canada Geese nested amongst Common Eiders and interrupted Herring Gulls while taking eider eggs. The geese displaced Herring Gulls from approximately ten percent of all eider eggs taken from nests, and ate egg contents themselves. Kleptoparasitism may provide Canada Geese with an important exogenous food resource, but the small overall number of eggs stolen from gulls (less than five percent of all eider eggs laid) limits the potential consequences of additive compensatory predation pressure by gulls within the eider colony.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Trophic Interactions

Adult Survival of Common Eiders in Maine - Allen, R. B.; McAuley, D. G.; Zimmerman, G. S. (NORTHEASTERN NATURALIST, 2019)
Although most species of sea ducks are poorly studied, much is known about the population dynamics of the American race of Somateria mollissma dresseri (Common Eider). Although Common Eiders typically have high adult survival and low recruitment rates, their populations in Maine have declined since the early 1990s. Wildlife managers hypothesized this decline was due to reduced adult survival; therefore, they decreased daily bag limits in Maine in 1999 and 2009 to increase local populations. The goals of this project were to assess (a) whether survival rates of adult females captured while nesting varied between historical estimates (1943-1993) and recent estimates (2000-2012), (b) whether survival rates increased from 2000-2009 after the initial harvest restrictions were implemented in 1999, and (c) determine if estimates of survival rates of adult males and females captured while molting differed from estimates of adult females captured while nesting. We used mark-recapture models to estimate survival rates of Common Eiders we banded in Maine (nesting females [n = 2340] from 2000 to 2012; molting males [ n = 4366] and molting females [n = 4952] from 2000 to 2009). We found no difference in survival of nesting females based on historical (mean +/- SE = 0.9003 +/- 0.0841) and recent estimates (0.90 +/- 0.015). Although we observed annual fluctuations in survival, survival rates did not increase following the implementation of harvest restrictions. Mean annual survival rates were similarly high for molting females (0.894 +/- 0.0205) and nesting females, but lower for molting males (0.855 +/- 0.0128). Lower survival rates of adult males may reflect the preference by US hunters to selectively harvest adult males. Overall mean recovery rates of banded birds were low (females: 0.037 +/- 0.00043, males: 0.0226 +/- 0.0006). We hypothesize that current harvest rates may be influencing decreased survival of adult males to some extent.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 4 Total Times Cited: 4 Cited Reference Count: 36
Keywords: MALLARDS; PROBABILITIES; RATES

Cyclic Avian Mass Mortality in the Northeastern United States Is Associated with a Novel Orthomyxovirus - Allison, A. B.; Ballard, J. R.; Tesh, R. B.; Brown, J. D.; Ruder, M. G.; Keel, M. K.; Munk, B. A.; Mickley, R. M.; Gibbs, S. E. J.; da Rosa, Apat; Ellis, J. C.; Ip, H. S.; et al. (Journal of Virology, 2015)
Since 1998, cyclic mortality events in common eiders (Somateria mollissima), numbering in the hundreds to thousands of dead birds, have been documented along the coast of Cape Cod, MA, USA. Although longitudinal disease investigations have uncovered potential contributing factors responsible for these outbreaks, detecting a primary etiological agent has proven enigmatic. Here, we identify a novel orthomyxovirus, tentatively named Wellfleet Bay virus (WFBV), as a potential causative agent of these outbreaks. Genomic analysis of WFBV revealed that it is most closely related to members of the Quaranjavirus genus within the family Orthomyxoviridae. Similar to other members of the genus, WFBV contains an alphabaculovirus gp64-like glycoprotein that was demonstrated to have fusion activity; this also tentatively suggests that ticks (and/or insects) may vector the virus in nature. However, in addition to the six RNA segments encoding the prototypical structural proteins identified in other quaranjaviruses, a previously unknown RNA segment (segment 7) encoding a novel protein designated VP7 was discovered in WFBV. Although WFBV shows low to moderate levels of sequence similarity to Quaranfil virus and Johnston Atoll virus, the original members of the Quaranjavirus genus, additional antigenic and genetic analyses demonstrated that it is closely related to the recently identified Cygnet River virus (CyRV) from South Australia, suggesting that WFBV and CyRV may be geographic variants of the same virus. Although the identification of WFBV in part may resolve the enigma of these mass mortality events, the details of the ecology and epidemiology of the virus remain to be determined. IMPORTANCE The emergence or reemergence of viral pathogens resulting in large-scale outbreaks of disease in humans and/or animals is one of the most important challenges facing biomedicine. For example, understanding how orthomyxoviruses such as novel influenza A virus reassortants and/or mutants emerge to cause epidemic or pandemic disease is at the forefront of current global health concerns. Here, we describe the emergence of a novel orthomyxovirus, Wellfleet Bay virus (WFBV), which has been associated with cyclic large-scale bird die-offs in the northeastern United States. This initial characterization study provides a foundation for further research into the evolution, epidemiology, and ecology of newly emerging orthomyxoviruses, such as WFBV, and their potential impacts on animal and/or human health.
Allison, Andrew B. Ballard, Jennifer R. Tesh, Robert B. Brown, Justin D. Ruder, Mark G. Keel, M. Kevin Munk, Brandon A. Mickley, Randall M. Gibbs, Samantha E. J. da Rosa, Amelia P. A. Travassos Ellis, Julie C. Ip, Hon S. Shearn-Bochsler, Valerie I. Rogers, Matthew B. Ghedin, Elodie Holmes, Edward C. Parrish, Colin R. Dwyer, Chris
Keywords: Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Disease

Food Habits of the Common Merganser in Winter - Anderson, B. W.; Reeder, M. G. (Bulletin of the Oklahoma Ornithological Society, 1977)
Keywords: Nonbreeding Seasons; Trophic Interactions; Common merganser; Mergus merganser

Notes on the Feeding Behavior of the Common Merganser Mergus-Merganser - Anderson, B. W.; Reeder, M. G.; Timken, R. L. (Condor, 1974)
Keywords: Trophic Interactions; Common merganser; Mergus merganser

Age and Sex Characteristics of Common Mergansers - Anderson, B. W.; Timken, R. L. (Journal of Wildlife Management, 1971)
Keywords: Common merganser; Mergus merganser

Sex and Age Ratios and Weights of Common Mergansers - Anderson, B. W.; Timken, R. L. (Journal of Wildlife Management, 1972)
Keywords: Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Energetics and Nutrition; Common merganser; Mergus merganser

Surf Scoter (Melanitta perspicillata) - Anderson, Eric M., Rian D. Dickson, Erika K. Lok, Eric C. Palm, Jean-Pierre L. Savard, Daniel Bordage and Austin Reed (The Birds of North America, 2015)
Keywords: Melanitta perspicillata; Surf Scoter

Predation rates, timing, and predator composition for Scoters (Melanitta spp.) in marine habitats - Anderson, E. M.; Esler, D.; Boyd, W. S.; Evenson, J. R.; Nysewander, D. R.; Ward, D. H.; Dickson, R. D.; Uher-Koch, B. D.; VanStratt, C. S.; Hupp, J. W. (Canadian Journal of Zoology-Revue Canadienne De Zoologie, 2012)
Times Cited: 3 Anderson, Eric M. Esler, Daniel Boyd, W. Sean Evenson, Joseph R. Nysewander, David R. Ward, David H. Dickson, Rian D. Uher-Koch, Brian D. VanStratt, Corey S. Hupp, Jerry W. 4
Keywords: Melanitta fusca; Nonbreeding Seasons; Surf Scoter; Trophic Interactions; melanitta perspicillata; white-winged Scoter

Gray whales may increase feeding opportunities for avian benthivores - Anderson, Eric M.; Lovvorn, James R. (Marine Ecology Progress Series, 2008)
Feeding by gray whales Eschrichtius robustus along the eastern Pacific coast between the Bering Sea and Baja, Mexico, appears to be increasing. Gray whale feeding can disturb large fractions of intertidal and shallow subtidal sediments, altering the distributions of benthic invertebrates for many months. Increased gray whale feeding may be modifying foraging profitability for other bottom-feeding vertebrates along the coast, but such effects have not been documented. This paper is the first report of a feeding association between a cetacean and bottom-feeding birds, namely a migrating gray whale and diving sea ducks. Local counts and condition of surf scoters Melanitta perspicillata in Puget Sound, Washington, suggest that gray whale feeding can provide important foraging opportunities for scoters during spring, when other foods may have declined and requirements to prepare for migration and reproduction are high. Complementary data are needed to evaluate the importance to scoters of this seasonal interaction with gray whales. However, given the large and protracted impacts of gray whales on benthic communities, our observations suggest that whale feeding may have increasing influence on the foraging patterns and trophic relations of a range of bottom-feeding vertebrates.
Keywords: Nonbreeding Seasons; Melanitta perspicillata; Surf Scoter; Trophic Interactions

Contrasts in Energy Status and Marine Foraging Strategies of White-Winged Scoters (Melanitta Fusca) and Surf Scoters (M. Perspicillata) - Anderson, Eric M.; Lovvorn, James R. (Auk, 2011)
White-winged Scoters (Melanitta fusca) and Surf Scoters (M. perspicillata) are often assumed to rely on similar marine resources. To evaluate the accuracy of this assumption, we contrast seasonal distributions, foraging effort, and indicators of energy status (body mass and composition, plasma metabolites) in three major foraging sites in Puget Sound, Washington, for these rapidly declining sea duck congeners. For Surf Scoters, distributions and energy status indicated that a mussel-dominated site was relatively important in early winter, but that importance shifted during late winter and spring to seagrass sites that provided either herring spawn or epifaunal invertebrates. As winter progressed, movements among foraging sites and increased foraging effort by Surf Scoters were accompanied by greater variability in their energy status compared with White-winged Scoters; body mass declined over winter by > 9% in about one-third of past studies for Surf Scoters, well above the range of losses observed in White-winged Scoters. For White-winged Scoters, lower variability in energy status, foraging effort, and distributions throughout winter suggests that they are better able to regulate energy balance regardless of changing foraging conditions. Greater resistance to seasonal environmental changes in White-winged Scoters may be related to their > 50% larger body size, which confers lower mass-specific energy costs and access to a wider size range of bivalve prey. Perhaps because of their greater sensitivity to winter foraging conditions, Surf Scoters appear to rely on a broader range of foraging sites than White-winged Scoters. Received 11 April 2010, accepted 9 January 2011.
Keywords: Behavior; Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Melanitta fusca; Nonbreeding Seasons; White-winged Scoter; Melanitta perspicillata; Surf Scoter; Dispersal; Energetics and Nutrition; Trophic Interactions; Habitat

Seasonal dynamics of prey size mediate complementary functions of mussel beds and seagrass habitats for an avian predator - Anderson, E. M.; Lovvorn, J. R. (Marine Ecology Progress Series, 2012)
Times Cited: 0 Anderson, Eric M. Lovvorn, James R. 0
Keywords: Nonbreeding Seasons; Melanitta perspicillata; Surf Scoter; Trophic Interactions

Using predator distributions, diet, and condition to evaluate seasonal foraging sites: sea ducks and herring spawn - Anderson, Eric M.; Lovvorn, James R.; Esler, Daniel; Boyd, W. Sean; Stick, Kurt C. (Marine Ecology Progress Series, 2009)
Identifying important foraging sites for highly mobile marine predators has relied mainly on relating their distributions to broadly defined habitat data. However, understanding functional dependencies on foraging sites also requires knowledge of the relative contributions of foods to predator condition. We coupled predator distributions with measures of their diet and condition to assess the importance of Pacific herring Clupea pallasii spawning events to 2 closely related and declining sea duck species. In Puget Sound, Washington, the numerical response of scoters to spawn increased with increasing biomass of spawning herring; this response was 4-fold greater for surf scoters Melanitta perspicillata than for white-winged scoters M fusca after accounting for local differences in their abundances. In the Strait of Georgia, British Columbia, diets estimated from fatty acids and stable isotopes indicated that both scoter species gained mass by consuming spawn during late March to early April. At a site without spawn during this period, only male white-winged scoters gained mass. In contrast, body mass of male surf scoters declined appreciably before spawn became available in one study year, suggesting greater dependence on spawn for restoring depleted reserves. From winter to spring, surf scoters attained greatest body mass during late April to mid-May while migrating through southeast Alaska; during this period, plasma triglycerides suggested that fattening was not related solely to spawn consumption, yet surf scoters aggregated to consume spawn whenever it was available. Although it is not clear whether herring are essential to their population processes, surf scoters and a range of other predators for which spawning areas are clearly preferred foraging sites would likely benefit from efforts that preserve declining herring stocks.
Keywords: Melanitta fusca; Nonbreeding Seasons; White-winged Scoter; Melanitta perspicillata; Surf Scoter; Energetics and Nutrition; Trophic Interactions; Habitat; SDJV funded

Reevaluating marine diets of Surf and White-winged Scoters: Interspecific differences and the importance of soft-bodied prey - Anderson, Eric M.; Lovvorn, James R.; Wilson, Matthew T. (Condor, 2008)
Past studies of the marine diets of Surf Scoters (Melanitta perspicillata) and White-winged Scoters (M. fusca) have reported that they eat mostly bivalves, but deviations from well-established methods by most studies suggest that the importance of soft-bodied prey has been underestimated for both species. Methods needed to reduce bias in diet estimates include collecting birds that are feeding, immediately preserving gut contents, excluding gizzard contents, averaging food-item percentages across birds versus pooling gut contents for all birds, and using energy or ash-free dry mass versus wet mass values of foods. For Surf Scoters collected in northern Puget Sound, Washington during 2005-2006, adherence to the latter three methods alone resulted in the assessed bivalve component of diet declining by over half and a near doubling of soft-bodied prey (i.e., crustaceans, polychaetes). Diets of Surf Scoters differed among three heavily used bays with distinct benthic habitats, yet 67%-86% of the ash-free dry mass of esophagus contents from each bay was nonbivalve prey. A synthesis of previous and new diet data revealed differences between scoter species: relative to White-winged Scoters, Surf Scoters consume smaller bivalves, a smaller and more variable percentage of mollusk prey (including bivalves and gastropods), and a declining percentage of bivalves as winter progresses. Past diet studies for scoters may provide misleading guidelines to conservation efforts by implying that only standing stocks of bivalves require consideration when prioritizing critical foraging sites.
Keywords: Melanitta fusca; Nonbreeding Seasons; White-winged Scoter; Melanitta perspicillata; Surf Scoter; Techniques; Trophic Interactions; SDJV funded

Wind, fire and water - Renewable energy and birds - Anderson, Guy (British Birds, 2005)
Keywords: Conservation; Sea Ducks - General

Egg size, body size, locomotion, and feeding performance in captive King Eider ducklings - Anderson, Vanessa R.; Alisauskas, Ray T. (Condor, 2001)
We studied the effect of egg volume and body size on swimming speed, endurance, and feeding rate in captive King Eider (Somateria spectabilis) ducklings in the Canadian arctic. Sprint speed, endurance, and feeding rate were positively related to egg size and body size. Large ducklings from large eggs performed better than small ducklings from small eggs. Ducklings that are more capable swimmers and have higher feeding rates may grow more quickly and be more effective at predator evasion. Thus, ducklings from large eggs may have a survival advantage over those from small eggs under conditions where predation and nutrition may constrain survival.
Keywords: Behavior; Breeding Season; Physiology; King Eider; Somateria spectabilis; Energetics and Nutrition

Composition and growth of King Eider ducklings in relation to egg size - Anderson, Vanessa R.; Alisauskas, Ray T. (Auk, 2002)
In several bird species, offspring from larger eggs survive better than birds from smaller eggs, but mechanisms responsible for that pattern have not been clearly identified. Studies of waterfowl have found relationships between egg size, body composition of hatchlings, and duckling growth. Therefore, body composition and growth rate of newly hatched King Eider (Somateria spectabilis) ducklings were measured to assess if traits consistent with higher probability of survival early in duckling varied in relation to egg size. Forty-one King Eider eggs were collected in June and July 1998 from two lakes in the central Canadian Arctic, and artificially incubated, of which 34 hatched. Body composition of 15 hatchlings (<1 day old) was determined, and 19 ducklings were raised in captivity to measure growth rate. Larger eggs produced larger ducklings with absolutely more lipid and protein reserve; absolutely larger breast and leg muscles; higher functional maturity for whole body, leg, and breast muscles; and higher tarsal growth rates than ducklings from small eggs. Such patterns of hatchling composition and growth in relation to increasing egg size may improve likelihood of early survival by improving thermogenesis, reducing time spent as optimal prey size for avian predators, and as shown elsewhere, by enhancing motor performance of ducklings through improvements in foraging efficiency and predator evasion.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Productivity; Physiology; King Eider; Somateria spectabilis; Energetics and Nutrition

Host-parasite relatedness shown by protein fingerprinting in a brood parasitic bird - Andersson, Malte; Ahlund, Matti (Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2000)
Brood parasitism as an alternative female breeding tactic is particularly common in ducks, where hosts often receive eggs laid by parasitic females of the same species and raise their offspring. Herein, we test several aspects of a kin selection explanation for this phenomenon in goldeneye ducks (Bucephala clangula) by using techniques of egg albumen sampling and statistical band-sharing analysis based on resampling. We find that host and primary parasite are indeed often related, with mean r = 0.13, about as high as between first cousins. Relatedness to the host is higher in nests where a parasite lays several eggs than in those where she lays only one. Returning young females parasitize their birth nestmates (social mothers or sisters, which are usually also their genetic mothers and sisters) more often than expected by chance. Such adult relatives are also observed together in the field more often than expected and for longer periods than other females. Relatedness and kin discrimination, which can be achieved by recognition of birth nestmates, therefore play a role in these tactics and probably influence their success.
Keywords: Behavior; Breeding Season; Bucephala clangula; Common Goldeneye

Protein fingerprinting: A new technique reveals extensive conspecific brood parasitism - Andersson, Malte; Ahlund, Matti (Ecology (Washington D C), 2001)
Conspecific brood parasitism occurs in many birds and some insects, fishes, and amphibians. Here, we develop and test a novel molecular technique for ecological analysis, protein fingerprinting (PF), based on isoelectric focusing electrophoresis (IEF) in immobilized pH gradients. It is applied here to albumen from birds' eggs and permits accurate identification of eggs laid by different females. This technique greatly clarifies female alternative reproductive tactics and laying patterns in brood-parasitic Common Goldeneye ducks Bucephala clangula. A small, nondestructive sample of albumen is taken through a hole drilled through the eggshell, which is then sealed with superglue, preserving egg hatchability. IEF yields a rich pattern of albumen bands with extensive variation among females. Observation and video recording of egg-laying by 21 color-marked females showed that they had unique band patterns, which were fully repeatable within and between years. Brood parasitism occurred in two-thirds (13 of 19) of the video-recorded nests of color-ringed females, with up to five parasitic females per nest. Of 234 eggs, 36% were laid by females other than the incubating host. These results suggest that intraspecific brood parasitism is more common and important than suggested by earlier studies using traditional methods. Protein fingerprinting yields individual resolution similar to that of a DNA multilocus fingerprinting probe, and has several advantages. The albumen band pattern represents only the laying female, not her mate(s), making it easy to determine the maternity of eggs, and to identify a parasite that spreads her eggs among a number of nests. Albumen can be sampled as soon as the egg is laid, before predation or other losses occur, maximizing sample size and minimizing bias. Protein fingerprinting is relatively inexpensive and easy. It is also useful for several purposes other than maternity determination, such as relatedness estimation for categories of individuals.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Bucephala clangula; Common Goldeneye; Techniques

Brood parasitism, relatedness and sociality: a kinship role in female reproductive tactics - Andersson, M.; Ahlund, M.; Waldeck, P. (BIOLOGICAL REVIEWS, 2019)
Conspecific brood parasitism (CBP) is a reproductive tactic in which parasitic females lay eggs in nests of other females of the same species that then raise the joint brood. Parasites benefit by increased reproduction, without costs of parental care for the parasitic eggs. CBP occurs in many egg-laying animals, among birds most often in species with large clutches and self-feeding young: two major factors facilitating successful parasitism. CBP is particularly common in waterfowl (Anatidae), a group with female-biased natal philopatry and locally related females. Theory suggests that relatedness between host and parasite can lead to inclusive fitness benefits for both, but if host costs are high, parasites should instead target unrelated females. Pairwise relatedness (r) in host-parasite (h-p) pairs of females has been estimated using molecular genetic methods in seven waterfowl (10 studies). In many h-p pairs, the two females were unrelated (with low r, near the local population mean). However, close relatives (r = 0.5) were over-represented in h-p pairs, which in all 10 studies had higher mean relatedness than other females. In one species where this was studied, h-p relatedness was higher than between nesting close neighbours, and hosts parasitized by non-relatives aggressively rejected other females. In another species, birth nest-mates (mother-daughters, sisters) associated in the breeding area as adults, and became h-p pairs more often than expected by chance. These and other results point to recognition of birth nest-mates and perhaps other close relatives. For small to medium host clutch sizes, addition of a few parasitic eggs need not reduce host offspring success. Estimates in two species suggest that hosts can then gain inclusive fitness if parasitized by relatives. Other evidence of female cooperation is incubation by old eider Somateria mollissima females of clutches laid by their relatives, and merging and joint care of broods of young. Merging females tended to be more closely related. Eiders associate with kin in many situations, and in some geese and swans, related females may associate over many years. Recent genetic evidence shows that also New World quails (Odontophoridae) have female-biased natal philopatry, CBP and brood merging, inviting further study and comparison with waterfowl. Kin-related parasitism also occurs in some insects, with revealing parallels and differences compared to birds. In hemipteran bugs, receiving extra eggs is beneficial for hosts by diluting offspring predation. In eggplant lace bugs Gargaphia solani, host and parasite are closely related, and kin selection favours egg donation to related females. Further studies of kinship in CBP, brood merging and other contexts can test if some of these species are socially more advanced than presently known.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 13 Total Times Cited: 14 Cited Reference Count: 216
Keywords: birds; alternative reproductive tactics; BIASED NATAL PHILOPATRY; brood merging; CLUTCH SIZE; COMMON EIDERS; conspecific brood parasitism; cooperation; EIDERS SOMATERIA-MOLLISSIMA; GARGAPHIA-SOLANI HEMIPTERA; GENETIC-STRUCTURE; GOLDENEYES BUCEPHALA-ISLANDICA; inclusive fitness; INDIVIDUAL SIBLING RECOGNITION; insects; INTRASPECIFIC NEST PARASITISM; KIN RECOGNITION; kin selection; spatial kin structure; waterfowl

Reproductive tactics under severe egg predation: an eider's dilemma - Andersson, Malte; Waldeck, Peter (Oecologia (Berlin), 2006)
Parental defence against predators may increase offspring survival but entail other costs. Egg predation is frequent early in the laying sequence of the common eider, which differs in this and in several other ways from most other waterfowl. We test the hypothesis that permanent presence at the nest from the second or third egg is an adaptation for reducing egg predation in eiders. Two other alternative hypotheses for lower predation at later nest stages are early predation loss of the most vulnerable nests and seasonal decrease in predation risk. Analyses of predation rates at the one-egg and later stages refute these two alternatives. Early nest attendance by eider females is estimated to increase clutch survival by about 20% in four-egg and 35% in five-egg clutches, albeit probably at a cost of smaller clutch size.
Keywords: Behavior; Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Productivity

Host-parasite kinship in a female-philopatric bird population: evidence from relatedness trend analysis - Andersson, Malte; Waldeck, Peter (Molecular Ecology, 2007)
Conspecific brood parasitism (CBP), an alternative reproductive tactic where some females lay eggs in the nests of other females of the same species, occurs in many animals with egg care. It is particularly common in waterfowl, for reasons that are debated. Many waterfowl females nest near their birthplace, making it likely that some local females are relatives. We analyse brood parasitism in a Hudson Bay population of common eiders, testing predictions from two alternative hypotheses on the role of relatedness in CBP. Some models predict host-parasite relatedness, others predict that parasites avoid close relatives as hosts. To distinguish between the alternatives, we use a novel approach, where the relatedness of host-parasite pairs is tested against the spatial population trend in pairwise relatedness. We estimate parasitism, nest take-over and relatedness with protein fingerprinting and bandsharing analysis of egg albumen, nondestructively sampled from each new egg in the nest throughout the laying period. The results refute the hypothesis that parasites avoid laying eggs in the nests of related hosts, and corroborate the alternative of host-parasite relatedness. With an estimated r of 0.12-0.14, females laying eggs in the same nest are on average closer kin than nesting neighbour females. Absence of a population trend in female pairwise relatedness vs. distance implies that host-parasite relatedness is not only an effect of strong natal philopatry: some additional form of kin bias is also involved.
Keywords: Behavior; Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima

Female sociality and kin discrimination in brood parasitism: unrelated females fight over egg laying - Andersson, M.; Waldeck, P.; Hanssen, S. A.; Moe, B. (Behavioral Ecology, 2015)
In conspecific brood parasitism, some females ("parasites") lay eggs in nests of other females of the same species ("hosts"). This reproductive tactic is particularly common in waterfowl, in which studies suggest that parasites are often related to the host. Here, we test the hypothesis that hosts may discriminate and reject unrelated parasites. Based on observations and >4100 h of digital video film, we analyze behavioral interactions at 65 nests of High Arctic common eiders during the laying sequence. We also estimate parasitism and host-parasite relatedness by albumen fingerprinting of 975 eggs from 232 nests. Among the video-filmed nests in which interactions were recorded during the egg-laying period, 11 had eggs from 2 females. At 8 of these 11 nests, there was overt female aggression and significantly lower host-parasite relatedness (mean coefficient of relationship r = -0.40) than in the nests with tolerant or no interactions (r = 0.91). The results demonstrate active female kin discrimination in common eiders, used against nonrelatives that try to lay eggs in the nest. Other females trying to access the nest were often prevented from doing so: in 65% of 34 such attempts, the sitting female rejected the intruder. Brood "parasitism" in eiders and other waterfowl is complex, ranging from violent female conflict and parasitic exploitation of the host's parental care to nest takeover and potential kin selection favoring acceptance of related parasites. These and other aspects of female sociality in eiders are discussed; in some respects, they may resemble certain long-lived matriarchal mammals.
Andersson, Malte Waldeck, Peter Hanssen, Sveinn A. Moe, Borge
Keywords: Behavior; Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima

The expansion of the Common Eider Somateria mollissima at Ukrainian coast of the Black Sea - Ardamatskaya, Tetyana B. (Acta Ornithologica (Warsaw), 2001)
In 1950s the Common Eider was a very rare species in the Black Sea region, migrating there only irregularly. A decade later, 9-14 males wintered in Black Sea bays. A few pairs attempted to breed there but their nests were flooded by storms. The first records (2 pairs) of successful breeding come from 1975. By the mid-1990s, the total number of breeding pairs had reached almost 1000.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Common Eider; Nonbreeding Seasons; Somateria mollissima; Dispersal

Use of Nape Tags for Marking Offspring of Precocial Waterbirds - Arnold, T. W.; Shizuka, D.; Lyon, B. E.; Pelayo, J. T.; Mehl, K. R.; Traylor, J. J.; Reed, W. L.; Amundson, C. L. (Waterbirds, 2011)
Times Cited: 2 Arnold, Todd W. Shizuka, Daizaburo Lyon, Bruce E. Pelayo, Jeffrey T. Mehl, Katherine R. Traylor, Joshua J. Reed, Wendy L. Amundson, Courtney L. Lyon, Bruce/E-8491-2011 2
Keywords: Breeding Season; Techniques; Sea Ducks

A Function of the Pair Bond in the Common Eider - Ashcroft, R. E. (Wildfowl, 1976)
Keywords: Behavior; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima

Goosanders and Red-Breasted Mergansers in the Moray Firth North Sea - Aspinall, S. J.; Dennis, R. H. (Scottish Birds, 1988)
Keywords: Common merganser; Mergus merganser; Mergus serrator; Red-breasted merganser

Vacuolar myelinopathy in waterfowl from a North Carolina impoundment - Augspurger, Tom; Fischer, John R.; Thomas, Nancy J.; Sileo, L.; Brannian, Roger E.; Miller, Kimberli J. G.; Rocke, Tonie E. (Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 2003)
Vacuolar myelinopathy was confirmed by light and electron microscopic examination of mallards (Anas platyrhynchos), ring-necked ducks (Aythya collaris), and buffleheads (Bucephala albeola) collected during an epizootic at Lake Surf in central North Carolina (USA) between November 1998 and February 1999. Clinical signs of affected birds were consistent with central nervous system impairment of motor function (incoordination, abnormal movement and posture, weakness, paralysis). This is the first report of this disease in wild waterfowl (Anseriformes).
Keywords: Nonbreeding Seasons; Disease; Bucephala albeola; Bufflehead

Common scoters (Melanitta nigra) and velvet scoters (Melanitta fusca) wintering of the coasts of Calvados: Relation between diet and sea macrozoobenthic populations on the littoral - Aulert, Christophe; Sylvand, Bernard (Ecologie (Brunoy), 1997)
Every year, Common Scoters (Melanitta nigra) and Velver Scoters (Melanitta fusca) come in their thousands to overwinter along the Calvados coast, between the Orne bay and the Seine estuary. The birds' wintering quarters remain constant year after year, and the use of space is always the same. Since 1992, the diet of these diving ducks has been examined in the course of population studies. An inventory of benthic fauna was undertaken at the same time. We found that the Scoters fed mainly on bivalve mollusks (Common Scoters) or on gastropod mollusks (Velvet Scoters). The location of wintering flocks could reflect certain benthic species distributions.
Keywords: Melanitta fusca; Nonbreeding Seasons; White-winged Scoter; Trophic Interactions; Black Scoter; Melanitta nigra

The Structure and Numbers Dynamics of the Urban Goldeneye (Bucephala clangula, Anseriformes, Anatidae) Population in Moscow - Avilova, K. V. (BIOLOGY BULLETIN, 2019)
From 1985-1998 to 2017, the numbers and structure of the urban population of the goldeneye (Bucephala clangula) were studied in the city of Moscow. Wintering birds and females with ducklings were counted on 150 ponds and 23 creeks of Moscow. Based on the age of ducklings, the date of the onset of egg-laying by females was calculated using the countdown method. The size of the wintering group has grown significantly since 1993 (r(s) = 0.92, p < 0.05, n = 25). It reached 2400 birds by 2014. Since 2010, there has been a gradual shift of wintering goldeneyes from outside the city to within its borders. The increase in numbers, like that of the mallard, correlates with local climatic indices: the length of the period of frost (r(s) = -0.73, p < 0.05, n = 25) and the mean daily air temperature (r(s) = 0.42, p < 0.05, n = 25) do not correlate with the global Index of the North Atlantic Oscillation. The breeding cycles of the goldeneye and mallard are similar in the ordering of the onset of egg-laying in relation to the transition of the average daily air temperature towards over 0 degrees C. The earlier temperatures above freezing are established and the ice melts, the more time the females have to prepare for egg-laying for both goldeneyes (r(s) = -0.80, p < 0.05, n = 18) and mallards (r(s) = -0.77, p < 0.01, n = 18). In the nesting goldeneye group, in contrast to the mallards, changes were not observed in the timing of reproduction and in the regulation of the negative effects of overstocking, such as an extended egg-laying period and a reduction of brood size in response to increased female numbers. The numbers of nesting goldeneyes grew from 1998 to 2010 up to 57 broods, but in 2017 it dropped to 4. The negative consequences for the local population are primarily associated with winter weather anomalies that lead to the death of trees and their removal by communal services in the habitats of goldeneyes. The goldeneye population sizes in winter and summer vary in the opposite directions, this being caused by multidirectional trends in habitat transformation. The population dynamics of nesting goldeneyes largely depends on the frequency of dangerous meteorological events, while the population dynamics of wintering goldeneyes depends on the regional climate changes.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 2 Total Times Cited: 2 Cited Reference Count: 81
Keywords: Bucephala clangula; CLIMATE-CHANGE; COMMON WATERBIRD; DUCKS; goldeneye; MALLARD ANAS-PLATYRHYNCHOS; number dynamics; population structure; SURVIVAL; urban population

THE STRUCTURE AND NUMBERS DYNAMICS OF THE URBAN GOLDENEY (BUCEPHALA CLANGULA, ANSERIFORMES, ANATIDAE) POPULATION IN MOSCOW - Avilova, K. V. (ZOOLOGICHESKY ZHURNAL, 2019)
From 1985-1998 to 2017, the numbers and structure of the urban population of the Goldeney (Bucephala clangula) were studied in Moscow City. Wintering birds and females with ducklings were counted on 150 ponds and 23 rivers of Moscow. Based on the age of ducklings, the date of the onset of egg-laying by females was calculated. The size of the wintering group has grown significantly since 1993 (r(s) = 0.92, p < 0.05, n = 25) and it reached 2400 birds by 2014. Since 2010, there has been a gradual shift of wintering goldeneys from outside the city to its borders. The numbers increase, like that of the Mallard, correlates with local climatic indices: the length of the frosty period (r(s) = 0.73, p < 0.05, n = 25) and the mean daily air temperature (r(s) = 0.42, p < 0.05, n = 25) and does not correlate with the global Index of the North Atlantic Oscillation. Goldeney and mallard breeding cycles are similar in the ordering of the egg-laying onset in relation to the transition of the average daily air temperature towards over 0 degrees C. The earlier the positive temperature established and the ice melted, the more time the females have to prepare for egg-laying both on goldeneys (r(s) = 0.80, p < 0.05, n = 18) and mallards (r(s) = 0.77, p < 0.01, n = 18). In the nesting goldeney group, in contrast to the mallard one, changes were observed neither in the timing of reproduction nor in the regulation of the negative effects of overstocking such as an extended egg-laying period and the reduction of brood size in response to the increased female numbers. The numbers of nesting goldeneys grew from 1998 to 2010 up to 57 broods, but then dropped to 4. The negative consequences for the local population are primarily associated with winter weather anomalies that lead to the death of hollow trees suitable for nesting. The goldeney population sizes in winter and summer vary in the opposite directions, this being caused by multidirectional trends in habitat transformation. The population dynamics of nesting goldeneys largely depend on the frequency of dangerous meteorological events, while wintering on the regional climate change.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 0 Total Times Cited: 0 Cited Reference Count: 81
Keywords: Bucephala clangula; CLIMATE-CHANGE; COMMON WATERBIRD; DUCKS; MALLARD ANAS-PLATYRHYNCHOS; population structure; SURVIVAL; urban population; Goldeney; numbers dynamics

Common Eider Somateria mollissima summering and moulting in Bavaria with remarks about Zebra Mussel Dreissena polymorpha - Baer, Udo; Jochums, Friedhelm (Ornithologischer Anzeiger, 1995)
Between June 1994 and June 1995 eight adult males of Common Eider were recorded on the Starnberger See, Bavaria; their moult stages were observed. In this period they fed on Zebra Mussels Dreissena polymorpha, which increased enormously in the sixties. The increase of several species of aquatic birds in winter, including Common Eider, coincides with the immigration of Dreissena polymorpha from rivers of the Black and Caspian Sea.
Keywords: Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Common Eider; Nonbreeding Seasons; Somateria mollissima; Trophic Interactions; Habitat

Courtship of the hooded merganser (Lophodytes cucul-latus) - Bagg, Aaron C.; A. Eliot, Samuel (Auk, 1933)
Keywords: Behavior; Hooded Merganser; Lophodytes cucullatus

Distribution and Abundance of Marine Birds and Mammals Along the South Side of the Kenai Peninsula Alaska - Bailey, E. P. (Murrelet, 1977)
Keywords: Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Sea Ducks - General

"Ashkui" vernal ice-cover phenomena and their ecological role in southern Labrador - Baillie, Shauna M.; Wilkerson, Corinne D.; Newbury, Tina L. (Canadian Field-Naturalist, 2004)
This is the first documented incident of River Otter (Lutra canadensis) feeding on Common Goldeneye (Bucephala clangula) in a little studied region, southern Labrador. Our observations were made during spring staging when waterfowl aggregate at open water sites in frozen lakes and rivers, locally known as ashkui. We suggest that otters and raptors opportunistically forage on staging waterfowl at ashkui.
Keywords: Nonbreeding Seasons; Bucephala clangula; Common Goldeneye; Trophic Interactions

Helminth Parasites of Hooded Mergansers Lophodytes-Cucullatus from Ontario Canada - Bain, G. A.; Threlfall, W. (Proceedings of the Helminthological Society of Washington, 1977)
Keywords: Hooded Merganser; Lophodytes cucullatus; Parasites

Changes in the waterbird community of the Lake Sevan-Lake Gilli area, Republic of Armenia: A case for restoration - Balian, Luba V.; Ghasabian, Mamikon G.; Adamian, Martin S.; Klem, Daniel (Biological Conservation, 2002)
Waterbird species richness (Gaviiformes, Podicipediformes, Pelecaniformes, Ciconiiformes, Phoenicopteriformes, Falconiformes, Anseriformes, Gruiformes, Charadriiformes, Passeriformes) has been significantly affected by a 19.5 m lowering of the water level in Lake Sevan (1933-2000), and the complete draining of nearby Lake Gilli (1960-2000) in the Republic of Armenia. Twenty-three former breeders are currently nonbreeders in the area. Four former breeders (black stork Ciconia nigra, glossy ibis Plegadis falcinellus, white-winged scoter Melanitta fusca, little crake Porzana parva) have been extirpated from the area. Four former non-breeders (cattle egret Bubulcus ibis, red-breasted goose Branta ruficollis, sociable lapwing Chettusia gregaria, lesser black-backed gull Larus fuscus) have been absent from the area for at least 20 years. The red-breasted merganser Mergus serrator is the only former nonbreeder discovered breeding in the Lake Sevan basin. We recommend that management plans of the 1960s and 1970s be used to further develop and enact new efforts to increase the water level of Lake Sevan by at least 6 m, and that Lake Gilli and its surrounding wetlands be restored as a means of increasing waterbird species richness overall, and protecting regional populations of globally threatened or near-threatened species (Dalmatian pelican Pelecanus crispus, red-breasted goose Branta ruficollis, ferruginous pochard Aythya nyroca, white-headed duck Oxyura leucocephala, corn crake Crex crex, great snipe Gallinago media, black-winged pratincole Glareola nordmanni, white-tailed eagle Haliaeetus albicilla).
Keywords: Conservation; Sea Ducks - General; Red-breasted merganser

Detection of Wellfleet Bay Virus Antibodies in Sea Birds of the Northeastern USA - Ballard, J. R.; Mickley, R.; Brown, J. D.; Hill, N. J.; Runstadler, J. A.; Clark, D. E.; Ellis, J. C.; Mead, D. G.; Fischer, J. R. (JOURNAL OF WILDLIFE DISEASES, 2017)
Wellfleet Bay virus (WFBV) is a recently described orthomyxovirus isolated from the tissues of Common Eiders (Somateria mollissima) collected during recurrent mortality events on Cape Cod, Massachusetts, US. Coastal Massachusetts is the only location where disease or mortality associated with this virus has been detected in wild birds, and a previous seroprevalence study found a significantly higher frequency of viral exposure in eiders from this location than from other areas sampled in North America. This suggests that coastal Massachusetts is an epicenter of WFBV exposure, but the reason for this is unknown. Opportunistic sampling of sympatric species and testing of banked serum was used to investigate potential host range and spatiotemporal patterns of WFBV exposure. Antibodies were detected in Herring Gulls (Larus argentatus), Ring-billed Gulls (Larus delawarensis), a White-winged Scoter (Melanitta fusca), and a Black Scoter (Melanitta nigra). These findings demonstrate the likely occurrence of fall/ winter transmission, expand our understanding of the host range of the virus, and provide further insight into the epidemiology of WFBV in the northeastern US.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 2 Total Times Cited: 2 Cited Reference Count: 10
Keywords: Common Eider; White-winged Scoter; Black Scoter; GULLS; Herring Gull; Ring-billed Gull; Wellfleet Bay virus

PREVALENCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF WELLFLEET BAY VIRUS EXPOSURE IN THE COMMON EIDER (SOMATERIA MOLLISSIMA) - Ballard, J. R.; Mickley, R.; Gibbs, S. E. J.; Dwyer, C.; Soos, C.; Harms, N. J.; Gilchrist, H. G.; Hall, J. S.; Franson, J. C.; Milton, G. R.; Parsons, G.; Allen, B.; et al. (JOURNAL OF WILDLIFE DISEASES, 2017)
Between 1998 and 2014, recurrent mortality events were reported in the Dresser's subspecies of the Common Eider (Somateria mollissima dresseri) on Cape Cod, Massachusetts, US near Wellfleet Harbor. The early die-offs were attributed to parasitism and emaciation, but beginning in 2006 a suite of distinct lesions was observed concomitant with the isolation of a previously unknown RNA virus. This novel pathogen was identified as an orthomyxovirus in the genus Quaranjavirus and was named Wellfleet Bay virus (WFBV). To assess evidence of exposure to this virus in Common Eiders, we conducted a longitudinal study of the prevalence of WFBV antibodies at multiple locations from 2004-14; we collected 2,258 serum samples from six locations and analyzed each using a microneutralization assay. Results corroborate the emergence of WFBV in 2006 based on the first detection of antibodies in that year. Significantly higher prevalence was detected in Common Eiders sampled in Massachusetts compared to those in Maine, Nova Scotia, and Que ' bec. For birds breeding and wintering in Massachusetss, viral exposure varied by age, sex, and season of sampling, and prevalence by season and sex were highly interrelated with greater numbers of antibody-positive males in the autumn and females in the spring. No evidence of viral exposure was detected in the Northern subspecies (Somateria mollissima borealis). Among the locations sampled, Massachusetts appears to be the epicenter of Common Eider exposure to WFBV. Further research is warranted to understand the factors controlling the epidemiology of WFBV in Massachussetts, including those that may be limiting geographic expansion of this virus.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 11 Total Times Cited: 11 Cited Reference Count: 14
Keywords: Common Eider; Wellfleet Bay virus; serology; seroprevalence

The Sea empress oil spill (Wales, UK): Effects on common scoter Melanitta nigra in Carmarthen Bay and status ten years later - Banks, A. N.; Sanderson, W. G.; Hughes, B.; Cranswick, P. A.; Smith, L. E.; Whitehead, S.; Musgrove, A. J.; Haveock, B.; Fairney, N. P. (Marine Pollution Bulletin, 2008)
Carmarthen Bay, UK, regularly supports internationally important numbers (> 16,000) of non-breeding Common Scoters Melanitta nigra. The spill of 72,000 tonnes of crude oil from the Sea Empress in 1996 affected birds both through direct mortality and likely pollution of key food resources. Numbers were greatly reduced following the spill, whilst changes in the distribution of birds within Carmarthen Bay suggested that potentially sub-optimal foraging zones were used. However, ten years after the incident, numbers of Common Scoter were no different to those recorded immediately before the spill. Compared to some other spills, rapid revival is evident. Numbers increased to pre-spill levels within three winters and distributional changes suggested a concurrent return to previously contaminated feeding areas, implying that the ecosystem had regenerated sufficiently to support its top predator. The importance of prolonged, standardised monitoring of bird numbers and distribution as indicators of ecological recovery from environmental damage is emphasised. (c) 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Nonbreeding Seasons; Contaminants; Black Scoter; Melanitta nigra

Numbers of Eiderr Somateria mollissima in The Netherlands in winter, 1993-97 - Baptist, Henk J. M.; Witte, Richard H.; Duiven, Piet; Wolf, Pim A. (Limosa, 1997)
Aerial midwinter seaduck-surveys in Dutch inshore waters were conducted annually in 1993-97. In this paper, results of counts of Eider are presented and compared with those of previous aerial surveys of the Wadden Sea and the North Sea coast including the 'Voordeita'. Numbers of Eider in The Netherlands in 1993-97 varied from 120 000 to 170 000, with peak numbers during the cold winter of 1995/96. Before 1990, numbers fluctuated between 110 000 and 145 000. Nearly all of these occurred in the Wadden Sea. Coastal waters elsewhere had 3500 Eiders at most. In the early 1990s, Eiders in the Wadden Sea faced a food shortage caused by a reduced Cockle Cerastoderma edule and Mussel Mytilus edulis spatfall, combined with intensive shellfish-fisheries. Considerable mortality of Eiders and a shift in distribution from the Wadden Sea to the Dutch North Sea coastal zone was recorded. In January 1993, less than half of the wintering population stayed at the Wadden Sea. Considerable numbers of Cut trough shell Spisula subtruncata occurred in the coastal zone. As a result, the number of Common Scoters Melanitta nigra increased from a few thousand to over 100 000. The presence of this alternative food supply appears to have been essential for the survival of Eiders. When the food situation in the Wadden Sea recovered, the proportion of the Dutch population wintering there increased to 90% (January 1996). During the cold winter of 1995/96, Eider numbers in Dutch coastal waters were larger than ever before. The Wadden Sea as well as coastal waters north of it were extensively covered with ice. Eiders then concentrated in small patches of open water or were either resting on the ice. Apparently, most birds tried to survive locally, instead of moving south as did Common Scoters. In April 1996, large numbers of starved Eiders were found. In the second cold winter in succession (1996/97), almost 20% of the wintering population was found more southerly.
Keywords: Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Common Eider; Nonbreeding Seasons; Somateria mollissima

The effects of shoreface nourishments on Spisula and scoters in The Netherlands - Baptist, M. J.; Leopold, M. F. (Marine Environmental Research, 2009)
The coast of The Netherlands is protected by nourishing sand. Generally, two different techniques are used, beach nourishment and shoreface nourishment. The latter technique supplies sand at a water depth of about 5-8 m in the surf zone, and has been used on a regular basis since 1997 with increasing volumes since 2001. Observations on the bivalve mollusc Spisula subtruncata that was abundant before 1997 and a key food species for wintering seaduck show a decline since 2001. This coincided with a decrease in the abundance of the Common Scoter Melanitta nigra, the most numerous wintering seaduck off the Dutch coast. These observations raised concern about shoreface nourishments. This study analyses the timing and locations of shoreface nourishments in combination with S. subtruncata abundance and spatial distribution. Against the expectation, no causal relationship was found between the decline of S. subtruncata and shoreface nourishments. Other causes, such as climate change, fisheries, unsuccessful settlement or predation of spatfall are more likely behind the decline of Spisula along the Dutch coast. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Nonbreeding Seasons; Trophic Interactions; Black Scoter; Melanitta nigra

First record of the White-winged Scoter, Melanitta deglandi (Bonaparte, 1850) (Anseriformes: Anatidae) for the Azores and Portugal - Barcelos, L. M. D.; Coelho, R.; Coelho, E.; Azera, S.; Barreiros, J. P. (ORNITHOLOGY RESEARCH, 2021)
In this study, we report the first occurrence of the White-winged Scoter Melanitta deglandi for the Azores archipelago and for Portugal. This report is based on a single individual observed in Angra do Heroismo Bay on 08 December 2020. The record has been approved by the Portuguese Rarities Committee and described as a first winter female. The occurrence of Nearctic birds in the Azores is important due to the geographic location of the archipelago and its relevance as a stepping stone for migratory species.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 0 Total Times Cited: 0 Cited Reference Count: 22
Keywords: Breeding range; North Atlantic; Occurrence; Vagrant species

Multiple stressors: modeling the effect of pollution, climate, and predation on viability of a sub-arctic marine bird - Bardsen, B. J.; Hanssen, S. A.; Bustnes, J. O. (ECOSPHERE, 2018)
Negative effects of long-transported pollutants, such as many persistent organic pollutants (POPs), on seabirds and other top predators have been documented for decades. Yet, the concentrations, and hence, the negative impacts of many POPs have recently declined in the Northern Hemisphere. I Iowever, organisms are exposed to multiple stressors and the impacts of pollution act in concert with both natural and other anthropogenic stressors. In theory, this means that even sub-lethal POP concentrations may cause adverse effects if they co-occur with increased levels of other stressors. We tested the multiple stress hypothesis on common eiders, a marine duck with a northern geographical distribution, by assessing the relative importance of pollution, climate (winter sea surface temperature; SSTw), and egg predation on population dynamics and viability (i.e., extinction risk) using Leslie-matrix population models. The model was parametrized by estimating reproduction and apparent adult survival using long-term data from a common eider population in sub-arctic Europe. Average annual adult survival was 0.80 (coefficient of variation [CV] = 22.00%) and showed a negative, both direct and delayed, relationship with SSTw. Average clutch size was 4.41 eggs (CV = 5.12%) and varied in time showing periods of both positive and negative trends, but showed no relationship with SSTw. We based immature survival on estimates from literature: 0.52 and 0.68 for juveniles and yearlings, respectively. Our model supported the multiple stress hypothesis as changes in a single stressor did not induce extinctions, unless the magnitude of our manipulations was extreme except for egg predation. The effect of pollution was, however, increasingly negative when it cooccurred with a warming climate and egg predation-and population viability was lowest when all the stressors occurred simultaneously.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 20 Total Times Cited: 20 Cited Reference Count: 83
Keywords: Somateria mollissima; Arctic; BREEDING NUMBERS; climatic vulnerability; CLUTCH-SIZE; COMMON EIDER; computer experimentation; Cormack-Jolly-Seber models; DENSITY-DEPENDENCE; EVOLUTIONARY RESPONSES; fitness; Grindoya Nature Reserve, Tromso, Norway; literature review; organochlorine contaminants (OCs); PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS; population viability analysis; POPULATION-DYNAMICS; SENSITIVE REPRODUCTIVE ALLOCATION; SOMATERIA-MOLLISSIMA; stress ecology; TEMPORAL VARIATION

Metal and metallothionein concentrations in scoter (Melanitta spp.) from the Pacific Northwest of Canada, 1989-1994 - Barjaktarovic, L.; Elliott, J. E.; Scheuhammer, A. M. (Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 2002)
Eighty-six surf (Melanitta perspicillata) and nine white winged (M. fusca) scoters were collected from 1989-1994 at 11 locations in British Columbia and the Yukon. Their kidney and liver tissues were analyzed for cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), and metallothionein (MT) concentrations. Individual kidney Cd values ranged from 2.4 mug/g dry weight (DW) in birds from northern Vancouver Island to 390.2 mug/g (DW) in birds from the Queen Charlotte Islands, which is in the range of values potentially associated with kidney damage. Birds from the Queen Charlotte Islands also had high kidney Zn concentrations, which were significantly higher than values in birds from Naniamo and Westham Island on the south coast of BC. Cd values were significantly (p<0.001) correlated with both Zn and MT concentrations in kidney tissue (r=0.66 and 0.62, respectively). Male surf scoters had significantly higher kidney Cd and Zn levels than females, with mean Cd values of 47.3 and 19.7 mug/g DW (p<0.002) for males and females, respectively. Mean Zn values were 120.8 and 108.0 mug/g DW (p<0.05) for males and females, respectively. However, no sex differences were observed for either Cu or MT concentrations in kidney tissue. Individual MT values ranged from 2.7 to 416.8 mug/g wet weight (WW). Individual kidney Cu values ranged from 15.1 to 48.4 mug/g DW for both sexes. Kidney and liver Cd concentrations were significantly correlated (r=0.90, p<0.05) with kidney levels almost always higher than liver values. Although Cd accumulation by the Skidegate scoters was high, comparable tissue Cd values have been documented in other seabirds collected from the same general area, indicating elevated Cd concentrations in marine food chains around the Queen Charlotte Islands (Haida Gwaii) region of the Pacific coast.
Keywords: Melanitta fusca; Nonbreeding Seasons; White-winged Scoter; Melanitta perspicillata; Surf Scoter; Contaminants

A phenological comparison of grizzly (Ursus arctos) and polar bears (Ursus maritimus) as waterfowl nest predators in Wapusk National Park - Barnas, A. F.; Iles, D. T.; Stechmann, T. J.; Wampole, E. M.; Koons, D. N.; Rockwell, R. F.; Ellis-Felege, S. N. (POLAR BIOLOGY, 2020)
Relatively little is known about the feeding ecology of grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) in Wapusk National Park. Other ursids, polar bears (Ursus maritimus), are well known predators of waterfowl nests in the area, and grizzly bears could feasibly make use of such resources. However, since the arrival of polar bears on land in the spring is largely dependent on date of sea-ice breakup, the timing of predation by each bear species may differ. We investigated the timing of bear predation in common eider (Somateria mollissima sedentaria) and lesser snow goose (Anser caerulescens caerulescens) colonies from 2012 to 2018 using nest cameras. We observed grizzlies consuming eggs of both species in all years except 2013 and confirmed that at least two individual grizzlies occupied the park in 2016. In the 3 years when both grizzly and polar bears were detected, grizzlies were observed earlier in the year than polar bears and had greater overlap with an estimated availability index of incubating waterfowl. We hypothesize that grizzly bears could have earlier access to waterfowl eggs in the park, potentially reducing availability of these terrestrial foods to polar bears.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 7 Total Times Cited: 7 Cited Reference Count: 52
Keywords: ABUNDANCE; Anser caerulescens caerulescens; HABITAT; LESSER SNOW GEESE; PATTERNS; PERIOD; Predation; SELECTION; SIZE; Somateria mollissima sedentaria; Ursus arctos; Ursus maritimus; Wapusk national park; WESTERN HUDSON-BAY

Digestive Organ Morphology Diet and Guild Structure of North American Anatidae - Barnes, G. G.; Thomas, V. G. (Canadian Journal of Zoology, 1987)
Discriminant function, cluster, and covariate analyses of gizzard, small intestine, and ceca weights were used to quantify the structure of feeding guilds and the effects of diet on gut morphology for 18 species of North American anatids. Guild structure based on gut measurements closely approximated that identified by generalized feeding habits. Herbivorous species such as Brant (Branta bernicla), Gadwall (Anas strepera), Redheads (Aythya americana), Canada Geese (Branta canadensis), and Mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) consistently had heavier gizzards and ceca than carnivorous species such as Common Goldeneye (Bucephala clangula), Bufflehead (Bucephala albeola), Oldsquaw (Clangula hyemalis), and Common Mergansers (Mergus merganser). Omnivorous species such as Lesser Scaup (Aythya affinis), Greater Scaup (Aythya marila), and American Black Ducks (Anas rubripes) were characterized by heavy gizzards, intermediate ceca, and heavy intestines. The results provide further evidence that intestine size is primarily influenced by overall diet diversity and suggest that gut size may be used to indicate general food habits. The ability of waterfowl to adjust gut sizes and accommodate dietary changes is restricted to ranges dictated by the most frequently eaten foods. Thus, predictions of general food habits can be made without knowledge of the foods being consumed at a particular time and location. [Other species discussed are Somateria mollissima, Lophodytes cucullatus, Anas crecca, Anas discors, Aythya collaris, and Aythya valisineria].
Keywords: Sea Ducks - General; Physiology

Food consumption by seabirds in Norwegian waters - Barrett, Robert T.; Anker-Nilssen, Tycho; Gabrielsen, Geir W.; Chapdelaine, Gilles (ICES Journal of Marine Science, 2002)
A model is presented of the annual consumption of prey by seabirds living in the Norwegian and Barents seas (ICES Areas I, IIa, and IIb) based on the numbers of birds present at any one time, their energy expenditure (and hence their food demand), and the composition of their diet. About 20 million seabirds living in the Barents Sea annually consume approximately 1.16 X 106 t, with Brunnich's guillemots (Uria lomvia) taking around 550 000 t (or 47% of the total). Of the total harvest in the Barents Sea, fatty fish constitutes 45% and invertebrates 46%. Annual consumption in the Norwegian Sea is estimated to be 681 000 t by 11 million seabirds of which Atlantic puffins (Fratercula arctica) are the major consumers (240 000 t, 36%), followed by northern fulmars (Fulmarus glacialis) (200 000 t, 29%). 50% of the harvest in the Norwegian Sea is of lean fish, and 40% invertebrates. Although these consumption rates are probably in the right order of magnitude, errors still arise from uncertainties concerning bird diets and numbers in the region at any one time (especially of birds which breed elsewhere and visit the sea in question outside the breeding season). While the percentages of invertebrates consumed in the two seas are similar, those taken in the Norwegian Sea consist mainly of benthic organisms eaten by common eiders (Somateria mollissima) while those eaten in the Barents Sea are mainly pelagic crustaceans taken by Brunnich's guillemots and northern fulmars. Compared to other predators such as cod (Gadus morhua), whales, seals, and humans, seabirds account for a minor part (8-15%) of the total harvest and even less (5-11%) of the fish harvest of top predators in the Barents Sea.
Keywords: Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Trophic Interactions

Breeding ecology of Spectacled Eiders Somateria fischeri in Northern Alaska - Bart, J.; Earnst, S. L. (Wildfowl, 2005)
Spectacled Eiders Somateria fischeri were studied on the Colville River delta during 1994-1999, prior to oil field development, to document aspects of breeding biology that are poorly known, especially for northern-nesting populations. Both sexes arrived June 6-12; many males remained for only about 10 days. Density on the 178-km(2) study area was 0.48 birds/km(2), comparable to densities reported from extensive surveys in western Alaska and Russia. Wetlands with numerous islands and peninsulas were utilised prior to incubation, a little-studied period. Females spent considerably more time feeding than males (56% vs. 18%). Males travelled, rested and were alert more than females, and actively defended females from intruding males. Whole nest survival was 31% and varied substantially between years, as has been demonstrated in other studies. Brood size showed no detectable decline from hatch about July 10 to mid-August, suggesting Low mortality during this period, a sharp contrast with results from a study in a lead-contaminated area of western Alaska in which duckling survival to 30 days post-hatch was 34%. The Likelihood of adverse impacts on this threatened species, from oil-related or other activities, can be reduced by industry avoiding areas, throughout the summer, with numerous islands, peninsulas and deep water.
Keywords: Conservation; Behavior; Breeding Season; Somateria fischeri; Spectacled Eider; Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Productivity; Habitat

Migration characteristics of long-tailed ducks (Clangula hyemalis) from the western Canadian Arctic - Bartzen, B. A.; Dickson, D. L.; Bowman, T. D. (POLAR BIOLOGY, 2017)
There are significant deposits of oil and gas in the Beaufort and Chukchi Seas, and many long-tailed ducks (Clangula hyemalis) spend a large portion of their annual cycle in that region, but little is known about their migration patterns. Consequently, we used satellite telemetry to track movements and reveal migration routes and staging areas of 57 long-tailed ducks from the western Canadian Arctic. After molting, all ducks moved westward along the Beaufort Sea coast of Canada and Alaska, into the Chukchi and Bering Seas and the North Pacific, staging at various locations. Long-tailed ducks wintered throughout the North Pacific region as far south as British Columbia, Canada on the North American side and Japan and South Korea on the Asian side, a distribution similar to long-tailed ducks marked with transmitters in Alaska. Spring migration of long-tailed ducks was generally a reversal of fall migration, following Alaskan and Asian coastlines north and eastward to breeding areas in Northwest Territories, Canada, with the exception of two females that travelled to Russia and one male and one female that stopped in northwestern Alaska for the breeding period. Migratory patterns of ducks from this study displayed both similarities and variations to other species breeding in the Arctic, e.g., eiders. However, similar to eiders, long-tailed ducks were in or near offshore oil and gas lease areas of the Beaufort and Chukchi Seas for significant portions of their annual life cycle, making them vulnerable to impacts from exploration and development in that region.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 4 Total Times Cited: 4 Cited Reference Count: 57
Keywords: Clangula hyemalis; Migration; CLIMATE-CHANGE; ALASKA; BEAUFORT SEA; BIRD MIGRATION; HARLEQUIN DUCKS; KING EIDERS; Long-tailed duck; MOVEMENTS; Oil and gas; POPULATION; Satellite telemetry; SITE FIDELITY; Staging areas; WING MOLT

Distribution and Breeding Biology of the Goosander Mergus-Merganser in Bavaria West Germany - Bauer, U.; Zintl, H. (Anzeiger der Ornithologischen Gesellschaft in Bayern, 1974)
Keywords: Breeding Season; Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Common merganser; Mergus merganser

Breeding biology and development of breeding population of the goosander Mergus merganser in Bavaria since 1970 - Bauer, Uwe; Zintl, Heribert (Ornithologischer Anzeiger, 1995)
1. Since the year of 1970 remnant populations of the Goosander in the Bavarian Alps started to expand and the prealpine rivers down to the Danube were resettled with the exception of the river Inn. 2. The local population on the river Isar south of Munich, which has been studied more in detail, produced surplus since the middle of the seventies which contributed to the expansion of the breeding area. 3. The Bavarian Goosander population increased since 1973 exponentially with an annual rate of increase of about 0.08 and a doubling time of about 9 years. Presently there are 250 to 290 breeding pairs in Bavaria. In some parts of the area the local populations reached saturation and the limits of carrying capacity, e.g. on the river Isar south of Munich and on the river Lech. 4. Breeding density reached 3.4 pairs per 10 kms river, where some nest boxes have been provided, along the lower reaches and without nest boxes 9.4 breeding pairs per 10 kms on the upper reaches. The grand average was 4 to 5 breeding pairs per 10 kms river for Isar and Lech. 5. The provision of nest boxes served as an important starting condition for the establishment of a breeding stock, but further action is not needed except under such starting conditions. 6. The Bavarian Goosander population at present may not be endangered any longer. But listing in the German Red Data Book for Birds is still justified. 7. We conclude that the pre-alpine breeding population of the Goosander may not be viewed as a glacial relict occurrence but more likely breeding started from overwintering in that area in the 19th century. 8. On the lower reaches of the rivers near the Danube lowlands egg-laying predominantly starts in the first third of March, but in the upper reaches in the alpine area it is delayed until the middle of April or even to the turn of this month, a timing schedule which gives some advantages with respect to the survival of the ducklings. 9. Data on breeding place competitors, egg sizes, clutch size, hatching dates and fledgling success as well as home ranges of females with young and factors of mortality are given. 10. Breeding success between 1970 and 1992 was 2.8 fledglings per breeding pair on the average for the course of the river Isar and somewhat lower, 2.3 fledglings/pair/year for the river Lech between 1986 and 1990. 11. The complete Bavarian goosander population is no longer wintering on Swiss lakes probably. Some move to other places. If all Bavarian male Goosanders fly to the Lake of Constance in order to moult or if some are migrating also to the main moulting grounds in Northern Norway is still unknown. Quite recently some moulting males have been observed also on their breeding grounds in the river Isar and Lech, where eclipse males can be observed after late September. Some winter and spring males are in their first year according to their plumage. 12. With respect to the decrease of fish stocks in the rivers the Goosanders surely are of minor importance and they may cause some losses only under exceptionally adverse conditions.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Common merganser; Mergus merganser

Birds Feeding on Herring Eggs at the Yaquina Estuary Oregon USA - Bayer, R. D. (Condor, 1980)
Bird species (17) [Branta bernicla, Anser albifrons, Anas americana, Aythya americana, A. valisineria, A. marila, A. affinis, Bucephala albeola, Melanitta nigra, M. deglandi, M. perspicillata, Fulica americana, Larus glaucescens, L. occidentalis, L. delawarensis, L. canus and L. philadelphia] were observed feeding on herring eggs throughout high and low tides at high rocky intertidal and low intertidal area in an Oregon estuary. At low tide gulls fed directly on eggs, but at high tide they pirated eggs from diving birds or picked up eggs drifting in water. Brant, wigeon and coots picked up eggs while walking, or tipping up or through piracy; in deeper water coots dove for eggs. Diving ducks obtained eggs by diving, by piracy or by picking up eggs while swimming. Less than 25% of the gulls, coots or buffleheads but as many as 45% of the scaups and 83% of the scoters observed in the lower estuary were in groups feeding on herring eggs. The species composition and abundance of birds varied within the estuary and probably reflected the onset of spring migration, immigration of birds into the estuary to feed on eggs, the presence of birds near a site of egg deposition and the domination of herring egg deposits by gulls in the uper intertidal zone.
Keywords: Melanitta fusca; Nonbreeding Seasons; White-winged Scoter; Melanitta perspicillata; Surf Scoter; Migration; Trophic Interactions; Bucephala albeola; Bufflehead; Black Scoter; Melanitta nigra

The trachea of the hooded merganser - Beard, Eliz B. (Wilson Bull, 1951)
The tracheae of male and female Lophodytes cucullatus are descr., including measurements , and are compared with those of Mergus merganser americanus, M. serrator, and Mergellus albellus. || ABSTRACT AUTHORS: H. Young
Keywords: Physiology; Hooded Merganser; Lophodytes cucullatus

Duck brood behavior at the Seney National Wildlife Refuge - Beard, Elizabeth B. (J Wildl Mgmt, 1964)
Daily observations of duck broods living undisturbed in their natural environment and unaware of an observer's presence were made during the summer of 1950 and 1951 at a 20-acre marsh in the Seney National Wildlife Refuge on the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. Observations were made of duck broods of the following species: blue-winged teal (Anas discors), black duck (Anas rubripes), wood duck (Aix sponsa), mallard (Anas platyrhynchos), hooded merganser (Lophodytes cucullatus), ring-necked duck (Aythya collaris), and American widgeon (Mareca americana). The latter two species were the most numerous, with the others represented by one or two broods only. Favorable loafing spots were so much in demand that competition existed among broods for their use. Although these spots were defended by the hen occupying them, she and her ducklings were sometimes driven off by other brood hens. No instance was ever observed of a widgeon hen driving a ring-necked duck family off a mound, but several instances of the reverse were seen. The female and her brood usually left the loafing mound together after completing their period of sleep, although sometimes the hen left while the ducklings were still asleep, to return either before they had awakened or after they had gone. Similarly, hens often left their broods while they were feeding, to return after an absence of 15-75 minutes. While thus temporarily abandoned, the young usually continued their leisurely foraging through the marsh. The duck broods exercised a considerable degree of mobility in their movements into and out of the study area; the overall length of time individual duck broods used the marsh varied widely. Methods of escape used by duck broods when frightened varied among the different species observed. With the exception of the widgeon, most brood hens usually tolerated the close approach of other adult ducks, provided they made no threatening move toward the young. The widgeons were conspicuous for their belligerence toward all ducklings that attempted to join their broods. In contrast was the behavior of the ring-necked duck and wood duck, which either tolerated or adopted young of other species into their broods. Loafing sites were extremely important in the daily activities of duck broods: it is quite probable that the number of such loafing spots in a marsh, suitable in all other respects for brood rearing, has a limiting influence on both the number of broods using the marsh and on the length of time they remain in it. Although no duck nests were found in the area immediately surrounding the study marsh, many of the broods first appeared there as downy young, indicating that rearing habitat need not necessarily include nesting sites. When existing rearing marshes become overcrowded, confusion prevails among broods, resulting in lowered duckling survival. Under such conditions, establishment of additional small rearing marshes is recommended. For the study area, the maximum concentration of broods occurred July 18, 1950, when 15 broods, representing 0.75 brood/acre, were tallied; and 9 widgeon broods was the highest number of broods of a single species seen there during 1 day. There appeared to be no conflict between the ducks and the deer (Odocoileus virginianus), beaver (Castor canadensis), and muskrats (Ondatra zibethicus) which also inhabited the marsh. The mink (Mustela vison), however, was shown to be a potentially important predator. ABSTRACT AUTHORS: Author
Keywords: Behavior; Breeding Season; Hooded Merganser; Lophodytes cucullatus

Differential Habitat Occupancy by Goldeneye Ducklings Bucephala-Clangula and Fish Predator Avoidance or Competition - Beattie, L. A.; Nudds, T. D. (Canadian Journal of Zoology, 1989)
Two hypotheses have been proposed to account for disjunct habitat occupancy between breeding Common Goldeneye (Bucephala clangula) ducks and fish: competition and predator avoidance. Both experimental and correlational evidence suggest that competition for food explains why goldeneyes and their broods tend to use habitats in which numbers of fish are low. However, rejection of the predator avoidance hypothesis has been based on correlational evidence only. In experiments, we tested the hypothesis that avoidance of predatory fish affects habitat use by goldeneyes by examining the responses of goldeneyes ducklings (hatched in captivity from eggs collected in the wild) to the presence of predatory and nonpredatory fish models in an aquatic arena. Although response behaviours generally decreased with age, this was not result of habituation to the testing procedure; responses of the oldest ducklings (9 weeks old) were not different from those of ducklings of similar age how not been previously exposed to the models. When the presence of the models affected duckling behaviour, group cohesion increased and diving activity decreased, but the intensity of the responses did not differ toward models of predatory and nonpredatory fish. Furthermore, measurements of duckling movements did not indicate that ducklings were actively avoiding the models. Our experimental evidence indicates that avoidance of predatory fish does not appear to be an important determinant of habitat use by goldeneye ducklings.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Bucephala clangula; Common Goldeneye; Trophic Interactions; Habitat

Diving behavior in surf scoters and Barrow's goldeneyes - Beauchamp, Guy (Auk, 1992)
I investigated diving behavior in foraging flocks of wintering Surf Scoters (Melanitta perspicillata) and Barrow's Goldeneyes (Bucephala islandica). Individuals in flocks of scoters and goldeneyes tended to dive and surface in a highly synchronous fashion. Diving-party size explained a large amount of variation in observed levels of diving synchrony. Synchrony increased with flock size as individuals in large groups followed one another more quickly during foraging dives than birds in smaller parties. Synchrony may be advantageous in large groups to maintain cohesion during foraging trips. Scoters and goldeneyes appeared not to adjust diving behavior in the presence of kleptoparasitic Glaucous-winged Gulls (Larus glaucescens). The length of the pause between consecutive dives was positively correlated with the duration of the preceding dive in the two species. Based on these relationships, the deviation from the estimated surface time was obtained for each series of dives. In both species, pause duration in sequences of many dives tended to oscillate around predicted values. This supports the idea that divers foraging on sessile prey complete more of the recovery after each dive than birds foraging on mobile prey who occasionally delay repayment of the physiological debt.
Keywords: Behavior; Nonbreeding Seasons; Melanitta perspicillata; Surf Scoter; Barrow's Goldeneye; Bucephala islandica

Parental behaviour and brood integrity in amalgamated broods of the Common Eider - Beauchamp, Guy (Wildfowl, 2000)
Post-hatch brood amalgamation was examined in the Common Eider (Somateria mollissima) along the shorelines of the St. Lawrence estuary, Quebec, Canada. Broods typically contained a large number of ducklings and several females in attendance. The amount of time allocated to foraging, vigilance, and other activities by brooding females failed to vary as a function of the number of ducklings. In addition, abandoned ducklings were readily adopted by brooding females suggesting that parental care is not constrained by the presence of additional ducklings. Parental behaviour also varied little in response to the presence of additional females. Preening on shore, however, increased in frequency with the number of females perhaps because broods aggregated more often in safer sites. Losses of ducklings occurred in several broods in one of three ways: (1) when ducklings straggled behind during foraging activities, (2) when broods aggregated temporarily and more rarely (3) when females voluntarily abandoned ducklings. Such losses suggest that integrity may be difficult to maintain in amalgamated broods. The extent to which lost ducklings are predisposed to be abandoned as a result of sickness or severe malnutrition, for instance, remains to be investigated.
Keywords: Behavior; Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima

Prey selection while diving by common eiders, Somateria mollissima - Beauchamp, Guy; Guillemette, Magella; Ydenberg, Ron (Animal Behaviour, 1992)
Common eiders, Somateria mollissima, wintering in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada, dive for prey over a variety of substrate types. In one, the Agarum zone, eiders choose at different stages during a dive whether to reject ubiquitous urchins, Stronglylocentrotus droebachiensis, of low energetic value in favour of continued search for rare crabs, Hyas araneus, of higher energy content. A dynamic programming model is developed to predict dive duration as a function of prey choice. Observations on diving behaviour by eiders are compared with predictions of the model. The model predicts that dives terminated with the capture of a crab should be shorter in duration than those terminated with the capture of an urchin. Fruitless dives, which occur when urchins are rejected, should be the longest in duration. The fit beween dive duration predicted by the model and that observed in the field is reasonable in shallow foraging zones. However, the model overestimates the amount of time spent underwater in deeper waters. It is shown that variability in crab total energy content, one factor that could potentially reduce the duration of deep dives, has no influence on dive duration. Deep dives may be shorter than predicted for a number of reasons. For instance, diving may be more energetically costly than currently estimated, or travel speed may increase with depth. More work is needed to evaluate the relevance of these possibilities in eiders.
Keywords: Behavior; Common Eider; Nonbreeding Seasons; Somateria mollissima; Trophic Interactions

Infectious food webs - Beckerman, Andrew P.; Petchey, Owen L. (Journal of Animal Ecology, 2009)
Keywords: Mergus serrator; Red-breasted merganser

The Distribution of Common Eiders During the Brood-Rearing Period in the St. Lawrence Estuary Canada - Bedard, J.; Gauthier, J.; Munro, J. (Reed, A. (Ed.). Canadian Wildlife Service Report Series, No. 47. Eider Ducks in Canada. V+177p. Canadian Wildlife Service: Ste-Foy, Quebec, Canada. Illus. Maps. Paper, 1987)
Keywords: Breeding Season; Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima

Brood and Creche Stability in the Common Eider of the St-Lawrence Estuary Canada - Bedard, J.; Munro, J. (Behaviour, 1977)
The nature and duration of the parental bond in the common eider (Somateria mollissima) of the St. Lawrence estuary [Canada] was studied using 1400 individually tagged females. Several degrees of broodiness were recognized in birds tending broods and/or creches. Four behavioral categories (B-, A-, V- and N) based on this variability were substituted in lieu of the vague term aunts used in previous literature. Eiders of the St. Lawrence estuary did develop a stable and exclusive parental-type bond with all the ducklings they accompanied. Even groups (creches) of 15-35 ducklings led by one, or sometimes 2 B-status females did function as family groups (one B-female and 3-5 ducklings) and displayed great cohesiveness after the ducklings reached a certain age (about 1 wk). The minimum duration of the parental-type bond was estimated at 40 days. Some European workers have suggested that creching is of greater survival value for adult females than for ducklings, allowing females exhausted by incubation to move rapidly to better feeding grounds. Consequently, the link between any female and a creche was seen as transitory. These views are rejected on the basis of evidence collected in the present work.
Keywords: Behavior; Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima

Assessment of the Importance of Nutrient Re Cycling by Sea Birds in the St-Lawrence Estuary Canada - Bedard, J.; Therriault, J. C.; Berube, J. (Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 1980)
Feeding and excretion rates of the herring, great black-backed and ring-billed gulls (Larus argentatus, L. marinus and L. delawarensis), and of the common eider (Somateria mollissima) were measrued in captive individuals and the concentration of soluble nutrients in their excreta was established. The bird population in a 30.6 km2 coastal study area varied between 2500 and 12,500 individuals between early May and mid-Nov. These birds excreted a seasonal total of 5.8, 4.2 and 48.1 kg-atom of soluble silicate, phosphate and nitrogeneous compounds, respectively. Such quantities, when introduced in the nutrient budget of the coastal area studied, are negligible, considering the levels of nutrients generally recorded in these waters and the relative importance of alternate sources such as land drainage and vertical mixing. The seabirds can hardly be viewed, except perhaps under the most special circumstances, as important agents in the dynamic nutrient regeneration processes of marine coastal waters of the St. Lawrence Estuary.
Keywords: Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Energetics and Nutrition

Decline of Long-tailed Duck Clangula hyemalis numbers in the Pomeranian Bay revealed by two different survey methods - Bellebaum, J.; Kube, J.; Schulz, A.; Skov, H.; Wendeln, H. (Ornis Fennica, 2014)
Abundance of Long-tailed Ducks Clangula hyemalis wintering in the Pomeranian Bay was monitored between 1988 and 2014, using both ship-based and aerial surveys and correcting for distance dependent detection. Aerial surveys were conducted using an improved transect division and a double observer design to estimate detection probability near the transect line. As the latter probability was considerably below 1, we applied an additional correction factor for observer efficiency. After correcting for observer efficiency in aerial surveys, the two methodological approaches yielded similar densities, though an apparent underestimation in aerial surveys warrants further cross-validation. Density estimates from both platforms were merged for further analysis. After reaching peak levels in 1992 and 1993, Long-tailed Duck winter densities in the Pomeranian Bay declined by 82% until 2010. This decline was part of an overall decline in numbers throughout the Baltic Sea. An apparent increase since 2010, which was likely due to local ice-induced movements, indicates that habitats in the study area may still support high densities today.
Bellebaum, Jochen Kube, Jan Schulz, Axel Skov, Henrik Wendeln, Helmut
Keywords: Clangula hyemalis; Long-tailed Duck; Techniques; Abundance, Distribution, & Trends; Nonbreeding season

Sex Ratio in the Common Eider - Belopol'Skii, L. O.; Goryainova, G. P.; Tarnovskaya, T. V. (Ekologiya (Moscow), 1974)
Keywords: Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Population Dynamics

The diet of insectivorous ducklings and the acidification of small Ontario lakes - Bendell, Barry E.; McNicol, Donald K. (Canadian Journal of Zoology, 1995)
We examined the diet of insectivorous ducklings of four species of waterfowl, Common Goldeneye (Bucephala clangula), Ring-necked Duck (Aythya collaris), Hooded Merganser (Lophodytes cucullatus), and American Black Duck (Anas rubripes), collected from small lakes covering a range of acidity in northeastern Ontario. The numbers of Odonata larvae, aquatic Hemiptera, aquatic Coleoptera, and Trichoptera larvae eaten by the ducklings were estimated from combined esophageal and gizzard contents and analysed with respect to differences in take acidity and fish presence. Ducklings of all species, especially Common Goldeneye and Hooded Merganser, ate significantly more nektonic prey, especially Notonectidae (Hemiptera) and Dytiscidae (Coleoptera), from lakes without fish than from lakes with fish. Ducklings of species other than American Black Duck ate more Anisoptera larvae on acidic lakes. American Black Duck ducklings ate more teneral Odonata on acidic lakes. There was a tendency for more Trichoptera larvae to be eaten on non-acidic takes than on acidic lakes. All four species adjusted, to some extent, for the absence of acid-sensitive prey in acidified lakes by feeding on prey that are most abundant under acidic, fishless conditions. Differences in diet among species were related to differences in diving and foraging behaviour, and to hatch date.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Bucephala clangula; Common Goldeneye; Contaminants; Trophic Interactions; Hooded Merganser; Lophodytes cucullatus

Sea ducks and aquaculture: the cadmium connection - Bendell, L. I. (Ecotoxicology, 2011)
Elevated concentrations of cadmium have been reported in the kidneys of sea ducks that forage along the Pacific Northwest, and cadmium has been postulated as a possible cause of population declines. The blue mussel (Mytilus spp.) which occurs in dense numbers on aquaculture structures and are a primary prey item for sea ducks also contain elevated cadmium concentrations. To determine if foraging on mussels associated with aquaculture structures could pose a toxicological risk to sea ducks, amounts of cadmium ingested per body weight per day by a representative sea duck species, the surf scoter (Melanitta perspicillata), were estimated and compared to the reported avian cadmium NOAEL (no observable adverse effect level) and LOAEL (lowest observable adverse effect level). Results indicate that in some locations within the Pacific Northwest, sea ducks could be exposed to toxicologically significant levels of cadmium associated with mussels foraged from aquaculture structures. This raises the possibility that such exposure could be contributing to observed population declines in these species.
Keywords: Nonbreeding Seasons; Melanitta perspicillata; Surf Scoter; Contaminants

Observations on the sexual behavior of the common scoter (Melanitta nigra) on the breeding grounds, with special reference to courting parties Engl. summ. - Bengtson, Sven-Axel (Var Fagelvarld, 1966)
Courtship display comprises 3 different tendencies: aggression, escape and sexual. These components may all be present at 1 time, or only 2 of them, and their relative strength may change in different actions. ABSTRACT AUTHORS: From auth. summ
Keywords: Behavior; Breeding Season; Black Scoter; Melanitta nigra

Breeding Ecology of the Harlequin Duck Histrionicus-Histrionicus in Iceland - Bengtson, S. A. (Ornis Scandinavica, 1972)
Keywords: Breeding Season; Harlequin duck; Histrionicus histrionicus

Food Resources and Breeding Frequency of the Harlequin Duck Histrionicus-Histrionicus in Iceland - Bengtson, S. A.; Ulfstrand, S. (Oikos, 1971)
Keywords: Breeding Season; Harlequin duck; Histrionicus histrionicus; Productivity; Trophic Interactions

Redistribution of extracellular water and sodium may contribute to saline tolerance in wild ducks - Bennett, Darin C.; Gray, David A.; Sharp, Peter J.; Hughes, Maryanne R. (Physiological and Biochemical Zoology, 2005)
The compartmentalization of body fluids was measured in three species of ducks that differ in saline tolerance. Half of the birds of each species drank freshwater, while the other half drank saline ( 300 mM NaCl). Among ducks that drank freshwater, total body water (TBW) was similar among all species, but Barrow's goldeneyes (Bucephala islandica), the most marine species, had larger extracellular fluid volume (ECFV) than freshwater mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) or estuarine canvas-backs (Aythya valisineria). When acclimated to saline, only goldeneyes shifted extracellular water and Na+ into the intracellular compartment. ECFV was correlated with plasma aldosterone concentration in goldeneyes, but not in canvasbacks ( aldosterone was not measured in mallards). Data summarized from the literature showed that TBW does not differ among terrestrial, freshwater, or marine species, but marine species have a larger part of their TBW in the extracellular compartment. Saline induced movement of extracellular water and Na+ into the cells only in goldeneyes. ECFV and redistribution of extracellular water and Na+ into the cells may be important components in saline tolerance of marine birds.
Keywords: Physiology; Barrow's Goldeneye; Bucephala islandica

Comparison of renal and salt gland function in three species of wild ducks - Bennett, Darin C.; Hughes, Maryanne R. (Journal of Experimental Biology, 2003)
Three processes central to osmoregulation of marine birds were compared in three species of ducks that differ in habitat affinity, diet and saline tolerance. These processes are filtration of Na+ and water from the plasma by the kidneys, their reabsorption along the renal tubules, and secretion by the salt glands. Barrow's goldeneyes Bucephala islandica, the most marine species, have the highest rates for all three processes and only this species can secrete all the infused salt via the salt glands. Rates of all three processes are lower in mallards Anas platyrhynchos, the most freshwater species. Following saline acclimation, mallards could excrete all the infused Na+ by a combined Na+ excretion of the kidneys and salt glands. Canvasbacks Aythya valisineria, despite being more saline tolerant than mallards, are unable to excrete all the infused Na+. They produce a large volume of urine (like mallards) that has a low (Na+) (like goldeneyes). Salt gland secretion Na+ concentration did not differ among the three species, but only goldeneyes secrete at a rate sufficient to eliminate all infused Na+ via the salt glands. Differences in saline tolerance of these ducks species cannot be fully explained by differences in their filtration, reabsorption and secretion of Na+ and water, suggesting that the intestinal tract plays an important role.
Keywords: Physiology; Barrow's Goldeneye; Bucephala islandica

Feeding associations between Snowy Egrets and Red-breasted Mergansers - Bennett, Jason; Smithson, W. Scott (Waterbirds, 2001)
During the winter months Snowy Egrets (Egretta thula) often form feeding associations with Red-breasted Mergansers (Mergus serrator) at Bolsa Chica Ecological Reserve, Orange County, California. We quantified and compared foraging success of egrets feeding in associations with success of egrets feeding independently. During winter 1996-1997, egrets feeding with mergansers increased their rate of prey acquisition by increasing both their striking rate (strikes/min) and their striking efficiency (captures/strike). In contrast, during winter 1997-98 we found no differences in the rate of prey acquisition between egrets feeding independently and those feeding in association with mergansers. Although we did not quantify the size of prey taken, egrets feeding in associations in 1997-1998 may have captured larger prey than those that were feeding alone. Egrets may benefit from feeding in associations with mergansers by increasing their prey capture rate and/or by capturing larger prey.
Keywords: Nonbreeding Seasons; Trophic Interactions; Mergus serrator; Red-breasted merganser

Aboriginal harvest of waterfowl in the Maritimes - Benoit, A.R. (Technical Report Series, 2007)
In preparation for establishing a co-management regime for waterfowl in the Maritimes region, I undertook a number of collaborative projects with Mi’kmaq, Maliseets, and Passamaquoddy in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island to assess their current harvest levels of waterfowl. This technical report provides data on the harvesting areas and timing of harvest, estimates numbers of Aboriginal hunters and lists numbers and species of waterfowl killed between 1993 and 2004. Given the interest and concerns of Mi’kmaq, Maliseet and Passamaquoddy peoples for wildlife, and given the low level of Aboriginal harvest of waterfowl shown by this report’s findings, the federal government will need to consider ways to build the management capacity of Mi’kmaq, Maliseet and Passamaquoddy and help them re-invigorate their traditional waterfowl harvest practices among their community members. These should serve to help build the capacity of Mi’kmaq, Maliseet and Passamaquoddy to negotiate a better co-management regime for waterfowl in the Maritimes region.
Keywords: Conservation; Common Eider; Melanitta fusca; White-winged Scoter; Melanitta perspicillata; Surf Scoter; Clangula hyemalis; Long-tailed Duck; Bucephala clangula; Common Goldeneye; Somateria mollissima; King Eider; Somateria spectabilis; Mergus merganser; Mergus serrator; Black Scoter; Hooded Merganser; Lophodytes cucullatus; Bucephala islandica; Barrow’s Goldeneye; Common Merganser; Melanitta americana; Red-breasted Merganser

Étude des déplacements du Garrot d’islande dans l’est du Canada à l’aide de la télémétrie satellitaire - Benoit, R.; Robert, M.; Marcotte, C.; Fitzgérald, G.; Savard, J.-P. L. (Technical Report Series, 2001)
Keywords: SDJV funded

Population Dynamics of King Eiders Breeding in Northern Alaska - Bentzen, R. L.; Powell, A. N. (Journal of Wildlife Management, 2012)
The North American population of king eiders (Somateria spectabilis) has declined by more than 50% since the late 1970s for unknown reasons. King eiders spend most of their lives in remote areas, forcing managers to make regulatory and conservation decisions based on very little information. We incorporated available published estimates of vital rates with new estimates to build a female, stage-based matrix population model for king eiders and examine the processes underlying population dynamics of king eiders breeding at 2 sites, Teshekpuk and Kuparuk, on the coastal plain of northern Alaska and wintering around the Bering Sea (2001–2010). We predicted a decreasing population (λ = 0.981, 95% CI: 0.978–0.985), and that population growth was most sensitive to changes in adult female survival (sensitivity = 0.92). Low duckling survival may be a bottleneck to productivity (variation in ducking survival accounted for 66% of retrospective variation in λ). Adult survival was high (0.94) and invariant (equation image = 0.0002, 95% CI: 0.0000–0.0007); however, catastrophic events could have a major impact and we need to consider how to mitigate and manage threats to adult survival. A hypothetical oil spill affecting breeding females in a primary spring staging area resulted in a severe population decline; although, transient population dynamics were relatively stable. However, if no catastrophic events occur, the more variable reproductive parameters (duckling and nest survival) may be more responsive to management actions.
Times Cited: 3 Bentzen, Rebecca L. Powell, Abby N. 3
Keywords: Breeding Season; Population Dynamics; SDJV funded; king eider; somateria spectabilis

Dispersal, movements and site fidelity of post-fledging King Eiders Somateria spectabilis and their attendant females - Bentzen, R. L.; Powell, A. N. (Ibis, 2015)
Post-fledging dispersal and site fidelity are poorly understood, particularly for sea ducks that spend the majority of their annual cycle at sea. This is the first description of movements and their timing for first-year (juvenile) and second-year (subadult) King Eiders Somateria spectabilis in relation to their attendant females. We fitted satellite transmitters that operated for 2years to 63 hatch-year birds and 17 attendant females at breeding areas in northern Alaska in 2006-2009. Our goals were to describe the spatio-temporal distribution of pre-breeding individuals and adult females that had been successful breeders. We also examined fidelity to wing moulting and wintering areas as well as natal philopatry. Juveniles did not appear to follow attendant adults, although they did winter in the same three general wintering areas, suggesting that genetic inheritance and social factors may have roles in the initial migration from the breeding area. Additionally, juveniles were more variable in the timing and duration of migration, moved longer distances during the winter, and were less faithful to moulting and wintering areas than adults, indicating that individual exploration and acquired navigational memory played a role in subsequent migrations. Most (75%) subadult females returned to natal areas, probably prospecting for future nesting sites, whereas subadult males were widely dispersed at sea. Timing and duration of moult migration and wing moult of adult females that were presumed to be successful breeders differed from those of unsuccessful breeders due to the extended time that the former spent on the breeding grounds. Temporal and spatial segregation of post-fledging King Eiders from adults has direct management implications in terms of resource development and population dynamics.
Bentzen, Rebecca L. Powell, Abby N.
Keywords: Behavior; Breeding Season; Molt; Migration; King Eider; Somateria spectabilis; Dispersal; Nonbreeding season

Incubation behavior of king eiders on the coastal plain of northern Alaska - Bentzen, Rebecca L.; Powell, Abby N.; Phillips, Laura M.; Suydam, Robert S. (Polar Biology, 2010)
Incubating birds balance their energetic demands during incubation with the needs of the developing embryos. Incubation behavior is correlated with body size; larger birds can accumulate more endogenous reserves and maintain higher incubation constancy. King eiders (Somateria spectabilis) contend with variable and cold spring weather, little nesting cover, and low food availability, and thus are likely to rely heavily on endogenous reserves to maintain high incubation constancy. We examined the patterns of nest attendance of king eiders at Teshekpuk and Kuparuk, Alaska (2002-2005) in relation to clutch size, daily temperature, and endogenous reserves to explore factors controlling incubation behavior. Females at Kuparuk had higher constancy (98.5 +/- A 0.2%, n = 30) than at Teshekpuk (96.9 +/- A 0.8%, n = 26), largely due to length of recesses. Mean recess length ranged from 21.5 to 23.7 min at Kuparuk, and from 28.5 to 51.2 min at Teshekpuk. Mean body mass on arrival at breeding grounds (range; Teshekpuk 1,541-1,805, Kuparuk 1,616-1,760), and at the end of incubation (Teshekpuk 1,113-1,174, Kuparuk 1,173-1,183), did not vary between sites or among years (F < 1.1, P > 0.3). Daily constancy increased 1% with every 5A degrees C increase in minimum daily temperature (beta (min) = 0.005, 95% CI 0.002, 0.009). Higher constancy combined with similar mass loss at Kuparuk implies that females there met foraging requirements with shorter recesses. Additionally, females took more recesses at low temperatures, suggesting increased maintenance needs which were potentially ameliorated by feeding during these recesses, indicating that metabolic costs and local foraging conditions drove incubation behavior.
Keywords: Behavior; Breeding Season; King Eider; Somateria spectabilis; Energetics and Nutrition; SDJV funded

Factors Influencing Nesting Success of King Eiders on Northern Alaska's Coastal Plain - Bentzen, Rebecca L.; Powell, Abby N.; Suydam, Robert S. (Journal of Wildlife Management, 2008)
King eider (Somateria spectabilis) populations have declined markedly in recent decades for unknown reasons. Nest survival is one component of recruitment, and a female's chance of reproductive success increases with her ability to choose an appropriate nesting strategy. We estimated variation in daily nest survival of king eiders at 2 sites, Teshekpuk and Kuparuk, Alaska, USA, 2002-2005. We evaluated both a priori and exploratory competing models of nest survival that considered importance of nest concealment, seclusion, and incubation constancy as strategies to avoid 2 primary egg predators, avian (Larus spp., Stercorarius spp., and Corvus corax) and fox (Alopex lagopus). We used generalized nonlinear techniques to examine factors affecting nest survival rates and information-theoretic approaches to select among competing models. Estimated nest survival, accounting for a nest visitation effect, varied considerably across sites and years (0.21-0.57); however, given our small sample size, much of this variation may be attributable to sampling variation (sigma(2)(process) = 0.007, 95% CI: 0.003-0.070). Nest survival was higher at Kuparuk than Teshekpuk in all years; however, due to the correlative nature of our data, we cannot determine the underlying causes with any certainty. We found mixed support for the concealed breeding strategy; females derived no benefit from nesting in areas with more willow (Salix spp.; measure of concealment) except that the observer effect diminished as willow cover increased. We suggest these patterns are due to conflicting predation pressures. Nest survival was not higher on islands (measure of seclusion) or with increased incubation constancy but was higher post-fox removal, indicating that predator control on breeding grounds could be a viable management option. Nest survival was negatively affected by our nest visitations, most likely by exposing the nest to avian scavengers. We recommend precautions be taken to limit the effects of nest visits in future studies and to consider them as a possible negative bias in estimated nest survival. Future models of the impacts of development within the breeding grounds of king eider should consider the influence of humans in the vicinity of nests. (JOURNAL OF WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT 72(8): 1781-1789; 2008)
Keywords: Breeding Season; Productivity; King Eider; Somateria spectabilis; SDJV funded

Strategies for Nest-Site Selection by King Eiders - Bentzen, Rebecca L.; Powell, Abby N.; Suydam, Robert S. (Journal of Wildlife Management, 2009)
Nest site selection is a critical component of reproduction and has presumably evolved in relation to predation, local resources, and microclimate. We investigated nest-site choice by king eiders (Somateria spectabilis) on the coastal plain of northern Alaska, USA, 2003-2005. We hypothesized that nest-site selection is driven by predator avoidance and that a variety of strategies including concealment, seclusion, and conspecific or inter-specific nest defense might lead to improved nesting success. We systematically searched wetland basins for king eider nests and measured habitat and social variables at nests (n = 212) and random locations (n = 493). King eiders made use of both secluded and concealed breeding strategies; logistic regression models revealed that females selected nests close to water, on islands, and in areas with high willow (Salix spp.) cover but did not select sites near conspecific or glaucous gull (Larus hyperboreus) nests. The most effective nest-placement strategy may vary depending on density and types of nest predators; seclusion is likely a mammalian-predator avoidance tactic whereas concealment may provide protection from avian predators. We recommend that managers in northern Alaska attempt to maintain wetland basins with islands and complex shorelines to provide potential nest sites in the vicinity of water. (JOURNAL OF WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT 73(6): 932-938; 2009)
Keywords: Breeding Season; King Eider; Somateria spectabilis; Habitat; SDJV funded

Characterizing the nutritional strategy of incubating king eiders Somateria spectabilis in northern Alaska - Bentzen, Rebecca L.; Powell, Abby N.; Williams, Tony D.; Kitaysky, Alexander S. (Journal of Avian Biology, 2008)
We measured plasma concentrations of variables associated with lipid metabolism (free fatty acids, glycerol, triglyceride, and beta-hydroxybutyrate), protein metabolism (uric acid), and baseline corticosterone to characterize the nutritional state of incubating king eiders Somateria spectabilis and relate this to incubation constancy at two sites, Kuparuk and Teshekpuk, in northern Alaska. King eiders at both sites appeared to employ a partial-income incubation strategy, relying on both endogenous and exogenous energy resources. Females maintained high invariant levels of free fatty acids, beta-hydroxybutyrate, and glycerol throughout incubation, indicating that fat reserves were a major energy source, and not completely depleted during incubation. Similarly, uric acid did not increase, suggesting effective protein sparing or protein ingestion and adequate lipid reserves throughout incubation. Baseline corticosterone and triglyceride levels increased during incubation, indicative of an increase in foraging during late stages of incubation. Incubating females at Kuparuk had higher triglyceride concentrations but also had higher beta-hydroxybutyrate concentrations than females at Teshekpuk. This dichotomy may reflect a short-term signal of feeding overlaying the longer-term signal of reliance on endogenous lipid reserves due to higher food intake yet higher metabolic costs at Kuparuk because of its colder environment. Incubation constancy was not correlated with plasma concentrations of lipid or protein metabolites.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Physiology; King Eider; Somateria spectabilis; Energetics and Nutrition; SDJV funded

First Evidence of Fatal Usutu Virus Natural Infections in an Anatidae, the Common Scoter (Melanitta nigra) - Benzarti, E.; Garigliany, M.; Hauman, D.; Paternostre, J.; Linden, A.; Franssen, M.; Sarlet, M.; Cassart, D.; Desmecht, D. (VECTOR-BORNE AND ZOONOTIC DISEASES, 2019)
While fatal infections caused by the Usutu virus appeared to concern only passerines (especially the blackbird) and Strigiformes (especially the great gray owl), we report herein that the virus also naturally causes a fatal disease in an anseriforme species, the common scoter (Melanitta nigra).
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 7 Total Times Cited: 7 Cited Reference Count: 14
Keywords: Belgium; common scoter; the Netherlands; Usutu virus; WEST NILE VIRUS

Differential Habitat Use by Diving Ducks Wintering in South Carolina USA - Bergan, J. F.; Smith, L. M. (Journal of Wildlife Management, 1989)
We studied habitat use of buffleheads (Bucephala albeola), lesser scaup (Aythya affinis), ring-necked ducks (A. collaris), and ruddy ducks (Oxyura jamaicensis) during 2 winters (1984-85 and 1985-86) on a reservoir in South Carolina. Locations of individuals (2,228 buffleheads, 8,927 lesser scaup, 6,065 ring-necked ducks, and 3,831 ruddy ducks) were plotted in 4 habitats: emergent vegetation, floating-leaved vegetation, submergent vegetation, and open water. Ring-necked ducks and buffleheads used the more shallow habitats (emergent and floating-leaved vegetation), and lesser scaup and ruddy ducks preferred submergent vegetation and open water sites. Within species, females generally used shallow and vegetated sites as winter progressed. Intraspecific differences in habitat use may result from sex-specific dietary needs, microclimate preferences, or thermodynamic implications of body size. Aggressive behavior was uncommon and apparently was not responsible for habitat segregation that we observed.
Keywords: Nonbreeding Seasons; Habitat; Bucephala albeola; Bufflehead

Time-Activity Budgets of Diving Docks Wintering in South Carolina USA - Bergan, J. F.; Smith, L. M.; Mayer, J. J. (Journal of Wildlife Management, 1989)
We determined nocturnal and diurnal time-activity budgets from focal individual sampling for buffleheads (Bucephala albeola), lesser scaup (Aythya affinis), ring-necked ducks (A. collaris), and ruddy ducks (Oxyura jamaicensis) wintering on a reservoir in South Carolina. Foraging and sleeping dominated the time-activity budgets whereas time spent in aggression and courtship was low. Buffleheads spent more time foraging (69%) than other species (41, 43, and 33% for lesser scaup, ring-necked ducks, and ruddy ducks, respectively) during the diurnal period. Female lesser scaup and ring-necked ducks foraged more (44 and 48%, respectively) than males (39 and 40%, respectively) (P < 0.05). Time spent feeding increased throughout the winter among buffleheads, lesser scaup, and ring-necked ducks (P < 0.05). Buffleheads fed most early in the morning and ruddy ducks spent more time feeding late in the day (P < 0.05). Ruddy ducks also fed more at night (42%) than during diurnal hours (31%), in contrast to other species in the study. The other 3 species also fed at night, but were not as active as ruddy ducks. This study illustrates the need to collect diel behavior data to document activity.
Keywords: Behavior; Nonbreeding Seasons; Bucephala albeola; Bufflehead

Gulls: Their competition, food needs, and relations to other coastal birds? Ger. summ.J - Bergman, Goran (Zool Revy, 1965)
In 19B4 the city of Helsinki started incinerating or burying all garbage, thus closing that source of food of gulls. The herring gull (Larus arzentatus) was forced to turn partly to ducklings and the young of smaller gull species. Size of brood of herring gull pairs was slightly reduced. The great increase in herring-gull population off the south Finnish coast since 1935 has forced the lesser black-backed gull (L. fuscus) to nest in less suitable sites; e.g., where some of the fuscus young are killed by ants or humans. Although sections of the coast further west from Helsinki do not provide such a stable and abundant food supply, gull colonies there are growing and new colonies are being formed. The more established colonies nearer Helsinki have not given much in the last 5 years, and the new settlers in them have mostly been older gulls, which nest earlier (mid-April). Gull young hatched after June 10 have a higher mortality than those hatched in May; cannibalism may play a part, but no direct evidence was found in this survey. At given stages, late-hatched fledglings are probably lighter than early-hatched ones, but we do not have enough data to support this statement. Herring gulls in smaller colonies fare better. Herring and greater black-backed gulls (L. argentatus and L. marinus) eat the young (weighing less than 0.3 kg) of the red-breasted merganser (Mergus serrator) and the eider duck (Somateria mollissima) (weighing less than 0.5 kg). Tern young are eaten till araonst fledged (0.12 kg). 15% of the food of black-backed gull is composed of merganser young and accounts for 3/4 of the consumption in spite of the greater numbers of herring gulls, which only get about 0.5% of their food this way. Intestinal infections seem also to contribute to recent high mortality of eider young. In spite of heavy losses, the total south Finnish eider population is rising, due to gains in areas with few gulls. || ABSTRACT AUTHORS: P. Hopper
Keywords: Breeding Season; Trophic Interactions; Mergus serrator; Red-breasted merganser

The Spring Migration of the Long-Tailed Duck and the Common Scoter in Western Finland - Bergman, G. (Ornis Fennica, 1974)
Keywords: Nonbreeding Seasons; Clangula hyemalis; Long-tailed Duck; Migration; Black Scoter; Melanitta nigra

Variations in the Occurrence of the Common Eider Along the Norwegian Skagerrak Coast from May 1988 to June 1989 - Bergstrom, R. (Fauna och Flora Naturhistoriska Riksmuseet, 1990)
Keywords: Breeding Season; Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima

Increased mortality in alternative bivalve prey during a period when the tidal flats of the Dutch Wadden Sea were devoid of mussels - Beukema, J. J. (Netherlands Journal of Sea Research, 1993)
In the course of 1990, stocks of mussels (Mytilus edulis) declined to unprecedentedly low levels in the Dutch Wadden Sea. Hardly a wild mussel bed was left on the tidal flats as a consequence of three years (1988, 1989, and 1990) with failing recruitment and intensive fishing for seed mussels. During these three years, recruitment of cockles (Cerastoderma edule) also failed, whereas fishing was continued. Bird species taking these bivalves as staple food, the oystercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus) and the eider (Somateria mollissima), experienced food shortage. Significant numbers of eiders left the Dutch Wadden Sea area or died, whereas oystercatchers remained abundant throughout the winter in most of the Dutch Wadden Sea. Alternative prey species of oystercatchers experienced unusually high mortality rates in the appropriate size classes. This was so in all other common species of bivalves, viz. first-year and older cockles, adult Macoma balthica, and juvenile Mya arenaria. This led to minimal stocks of food for oystercatchers in the late winter of 1991. In March 1991, cockles were depleted and the combined stocks of Mya and Macoma would soon have run out of food supply to the overwintering oystercatcher population. Apparently, oystercatchers are able to reduce the stocks of their various bivalve prey species to very low levels.
Keywords: Common Eider; Nonbreeding Seasons; Somateria mollissima; Trophic Interactions

An estimate of the sustainable rate of shell extraction from the Dutch Wadden Sea - Beukema, J. J.; Cadee, G. C. (Journal of Applied Ecology, 1999)
1. Shell production by cockles Cerastoderma edule was studied to examine whether or not the present licensed rate of shell extraction in the Dutch Wadden Sea exceeds the current rate of shell addition to the exploitable stocks. 2. Long-term data on numbers of cockles and weights of their shells were used to estimate their annual production on Balgzand, a 50-km2 tidal flat area in the western-most part of the Wadden Sea. During the 1969-97 period, it amounted to an average of 125 g m-2, including 107 g m-2 of shells large enough to be exploitable for shell-lime fishery. 3. The very irregular annual recruitment of cockles was the main cause of the wide 95% confidence limits (74 and 140 g m-2 year-1) of this 28-year estimate. Moreover, high mortality rates in severe winters substantially reduced production per recruit in some year classes. 4. About one-third of the estimated production does not reach exploitable stocks, because it is fragmented by birds (particularly eider ducks), permanently buried in the sediment, or removed by the fishery for live cockles. 5. During the last few decades, the estimated mean amount added annually to the exploitable stocks was 88 million kg or 132 000 m3 of large cockle shells. This amount compares favourably with the current annual level of removal of 134 000 m3 of shells, three-quarters of which are cockles. 6. Even at temporarily lower production rates, the exploitation of shell stocks at its present rate is not expected to lead to a rapid exhaustion of the existing stocks in the tidal inlets of the Dutch Wadden Sea, as these stocks will be in the order of a few million m3.
Keywords: Conservation; Sea Ducks - General; Nonbreeding Seasons; Trophic Interactions

How two large-scale "experiments" illustrate the importance of enrichment and fishery for the functioning of the Wadden Sea ecosystem - Beukema, J. J.; Cadee, G. C.; Dekker, R. (Senckenbergiana Maritima, 1998)
In the recent past, two far-reaching changes have taken place in the Dutch part of the Wadden Sea: (1) a drastic increase in the late 1970s of the annual rates of primary production and of chlorophyll concentrations (restricted to the western part of the Dutch Wadden Sea and probably induced by eutrophicated fresh water sluiced from Lake IJssel), and (2) a sudden removal in 1990 of nearly all mussel and cockle beds by commercial fishery all over the Dutch part of the Wadden Sea. These two large-scale events can be regarded as large-scale "experiments", manipulating an almost natural ecosystem over a vast geographic area. The consequences could be followed by regularly executed monitoring programmes of the phytoplankton in Marsdiep (the main tidal inlet of the western part of the Wadden Sea) and the benthic macrofauna on Balgzand (a nearby 50 km2 tidal-flat area). As a response to the substantial and rather sudden increase in their food supply around 1978, the total benthic biomass roughly doubled, though with a time lag of about two years. This doubling of zoobenthic stocks was restricted to the part of the Wadden Sea that is directly affected by water from Lake IJssel. It was further restricted to areas with relatively high zoobenthic biomass (with high food demand relative to food supply) and moderate environmental conditions (no exposure to short immersion periods or strong currents). The response to the sudden removal in 1990 of nearly all beds of the two major bivalve species was even more dramatic: concentrations of phytoplankton were unusually high in the 1990/91 winter and phytoplankton blooming started unusually early in late-winter, causing high weights and early and rapid growth in the bivalves that had remained. Mortality rates in some benthos species were extraordinarily high during the 1990-1991 winter, probably as a consequence of birds switching from the unprecedentedly scarce mussels and cockles to other prey species. Oystercatchers and eider ducks suffered abnormally high mortality and a high proportion of these birds left the Dutch Wadden Sea earlier than in other years. From both "experiments" we conclude that the Wadden Sea is a food-limited ecosystem, both in the first and in the second link of the main food chain. Only in restricted areas with extreme environmental conditions is the fauna so scarce that competition for food cannot play a significant role. In such areas, other (stressing) factors apparently inhibit the abundance of the benthic fauna and enrichment of food supply is not effective (food, therefore, not being the limiting factor there). Unrestricted fishery appears to be a greater threat to the normal functioning of the ecosystem of the Dutch Wadden Sea than mild eutrophication.
Keywords: Sea Ducks - General; Trophic Interactions

Habitat use and movements of common eiders wintering in southern New England - Beuth, J. M.; McWilliams, S. R.; Paton, P. W. C.; Osenkowski, J. E. (JOURNAL OF WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT, 2017)
Little is known about the habitat use patterns and movement ecology of American common eiders (Somateria mollissima dresseri) despite potential negative impacts on habitat and eider populations from anthropogenic sources (e.g., oil spills, hunting, offshore wind energy facilities). We used satellite telemetry to quantify migratory phenology, home range size, winter site fidelity, and resource selection of adult female eiders (n=24) from December 2011 to July 2013 that were captured during winter in southern New England, USA. Eiders spent 39% of their annual cycle in southern New England. In spring, eiders took an average of 16 days (range=2-47) in 2012 and 20 days (range=1-61) in 2013 to migrate from wintering grounds to summer areas, whereas the duration of fall migration averaged 47 days (range=7-115). Eiders exhibited high site fidelity to wintering areas, with 83% of birds with active transmitters (n=23) returning to the study area the following winter (2012-2013). Mean individual core use home ranges on wintering grounds averaged 38.5km(2) and 95% utilization distributions were 199.3km(2). Based on habitat selection models, eiders preferred shallow, nearshore waters that had relatively fine sediments and a high probability of hard bottom. We estimated that only 3% of our 6,212-km(2) study area had a high relative probability of use by eiders. Future development (e.g., offshore wind energy developments) should avoid shallow, nearshore waters with hard bottoms preferred by eiders to minimize potential impacts. (c) 2017 The Wildlife Society. Adult female common eider exhibited strong site fidelity to shallow, nearshore waters in southern New England that had relatively fine sediments and a high probability of hard bottom. Only a small percentage of nearshore waters provided high-quality habitat for eiders and these areas should be avoided when planning marine construction projects, such as offshore wind energy facilities.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 15 Total Times Cited: 15 Cited Reference Count: 72
Keywords: common eider; SELECTION; HARLEQUIN DUCKS; BODY-COMPOSITION; COLLISION RISK; DEUTERIUM DILUTION METHOD; migration phenology; NORTH-ATLANTIC ESTUARY; satellite telemetry; SCOTERS; SEA DUCKS; site fidelity; Somateria mollissima dresseri; SOMATERIA-MOLLISSIMA-BOREALIS; southern New England; winter habitat use

Sediment ingestion rates in waterfowl (Anatide) and their use in environmental risk assessment - Beyer, W. Nelson; Perry, Matthew C.; Osenton, Peter C. (Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management, 2008)
When waterfowl (Anatidae) ingest sediment as they feed, they are exposed to the environmental contaminants in those sediments. The rate of ingestion may be key to assessing environmental risk. Rates of sediment ingestion were estimated as from <2% to 22% in 16 species of waterfowl collected in the northeastern United States. The piscivorous red-breasted merganser (Mergus serrator) ingested sediment at the lowest rate and the benthos-feeding canvasback (Aythya valisineria) at the highest rate. Sediment ingestion rates were related to diet and to the sediments where waterfowl fed. Waterfowl ingested the least sediment from hard-bottomed habitats with fast-moving water and ingested the most sediment from soft-bottomed areas with slow-moving water. Understanding the greater hazards from contaminants associated with low-flow habitats may help in prioritizing sites to be remediated. The tundra swan (Cygnus columbianus), which ingests sediment at an estimated 8.4% of its diet, dry weight, is suggested as a potential generic model for use in environmental risk assessments designed to protect waterfowl.
Keywords: Sea Ducks - General; Contaminants

Trends in hepatic cadmium concentrations in marine bird species from the Canadian Arctic - Bianchini, K.; Mallory, M. L.; Provencher, J. F. (SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT, 2023)
Cadmium (Cd) is a trace element of toxicological concern that has been monitored in marine birds inhabiting the Canadian Arctic since 1975. Despite nearly 50 years of monitoring, research to date has largely evaluated single species, locations, or time points, and there is as of yet no holistic overview that jointly considers all available Cd data. We addressed this information gap by combining and analyzing most of the existing data on hepatic Cd concentrations in marine birds from the Canadian Arctic. Using data collected between 1975 and 2018 from eight seabird species from 12 Arctic breeding colonies, we examined temporal, spatial, and interspecific variation in hepatic Cd levels, and we evaluated possible drivers of marine bird Cd loads. Hepatic Cd concentrations ranged from 1.6 to 124 mu g/g dry weight across species, and were highest in thick-billed murres (Uria lomvia) and king eiders (Somateria spectabilis), and lowest in black guillemots (Cepphus grylle), black-legged kittiwakes (Rissa tridactyla), and long-tailed ducks (Clangula hyemalis). All sites with multiple years of data showed interannual fluctuations in Cd, which were correlated with the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) index and with the previous year's June sea ice coverage, where marine birds exhibited higher Cd concentrations in positive NAO years and following years with lower sea ice coverage. Climate change is likely to shift the NAO to being more negative and to reduce sea ice coverage, and our results thus identify various ways by which climate change could alter Cd concentrations in marine birds in the Canadian Arctic. Understanding variations in marine bird contaminant burdens, and how these may be alters by other stressors such as climate change, is important for long-term marine bird conservation efforts.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 0 Total Times Cited: 0 Cited Reference Count: 104
Keywords: PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS; Arctic Canada; Cadmium; Climate; COMMON EIDER DUCKS; CONTAMINANT RESIDUES; FOOD-WEB; Marine birds; METALLOTHIONEIN CONCENTRATIONS; NORTH-ATLANTIC OSCILLATION; RINGED SEALS; SEABIRD EGGS; TEMPORAL TRENDS; Trace elements; TRACE-ELEMENT CONCENTRATIONS

Hydrogen isotope ratios in animal body protein reflect trophic level - Birchall, Jennifer; O'Connell, Tamsin C.; Heaton, Tim H. E.; Hedges, Robert E. M. (Journal of Animal Ecology, 2005)
1. Carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios in consumer tissues are known to correlate with diet isotope composition, and nitrogen isotope ratios are observed to increase with increasing trophic level.2. We analysed nitrogen and hydrogen isotope ratios of collagen from 19 species of British fish, birds and mammals to investigate how delta D also correlated with trophic level and with feeding environment (terrestrial or aquatic).3. A strong relationship between trophic level and delta D was discovered for both terrestrial and aquatic consumers.4. The correlation between trophic level and delta N-15 was apparent for terrestrial consumers, but less so for aquatic consumers.5. No differentiation was found between delta D of aquatic and terrestrial consumers at the same trophic level.6. This observation should provide an additional tool in the study of current and ancient animal and human food web ecology.
Keywords: Sea Ducks - General; Trophic Interactions; Common merganser

Helminth Parasites of the Common Eider Duck Somateria-Mollissima in Newfoundland and Labrador Canada - Bishop, C. A.; Threlfall, W. (Proceedings of the Helminthological Society of Washington, 1974)
Keywords: Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Parasites

Predation on Pacific herring (Clupea pallasi) spawn by birds in Prince William Sound, Alaska - Bishop, Mary A.; Green, S. Patrick (Fisheries Oceanography, 2001)
We examined bird diets in areas with Pacific herring (Clupea pallasi) spawn at northern Montague Island in Prince William Sound, Alaska. Diets of the five most abundant bird species consisted primarily of herring spawn. Using a bioenergetics model, we estimated that in spring 1994 the five-bird species ate 857.1 metric tons (mt), representing 31% of the estimated spawn deposition. The two most numerous consumers, glaucous-winged gull (Larus glaucescens) and mew gull (Larus canus) consumed 26% and 3%, respectively, of the estimated spawn deposition. Surf scoters (Melanitta perspicillata), surfbirds (Aphriza virgata), and black turnstone (Arenaria melanocephala) together consumed 2% of the spawn deposition. In years with low spawn biomass, such as 1994, the number of herring larvae produced could be significantly affected by normal rates of avian predation. The high consumption by gulls, shorebirds, and surf scorers underscores the importance of herring spawn in the annual cycle of these species and requires further investigation.
Keywords: Nonbreeding Seasons; Melanitta perspicillata; Surf Scoter; Trophic Interactions

Efficacy of praziquantel in treating natural schistosome infections in common mergansers - Blankespoor, C. L.; Reimink, R. L.; Blankespoor, H. D. (Journal of Parasitology, 2001)
Fifty-one common mergansers were captured on Douglas Lake (Cheboygan County, Michigan) and their avian schistosome loads were determined by fecal examination. Each bird was given a single dose of 0, 40, or 200 mg/kg of body weight of praziquantel and released. All birds were recaptured within 10 days of drug administration to determine posttreatment schistosome loads. Only the highest dose of praziquantel was found to significantly reduce avian schistosome loads. The potential use of praziquantel in swimmer's itch control programs is discussed.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Techniques; Common merganser; Mergus merganser; Parasites

Trends of migratory waterbirds in the German Wadden Sea from 1987/1988 to 2001/2002 - Blew, Jan; Guenther, Klaus; Suedbeck, Peter (Vogelwelt, 2005)
The German Wadden Sea at the North Sea coast of Lower-Saxony and Schleswig-Holstein is a staging area for more than 4 Million migratory waterbirds of the East-Atlantic Flyway; many of those breed in the Arctic and / or overwinter as far South as tropical Africa. Since 1980 most German Wadden Sea sites have been counted at least two times per year during internationally synchronous counts (January and in another month of the year), many of them monthly and - since 1987 - many others in selected spring-tide Counting areas every 14-15 days throughout the year. For the first time the migratory bird counts of the German Wadden Sea have been compiled into one database to calculate numbers and trends of 34 species. Among the 34 species considered here for the period 1987-2002, four show a positive trend, 14 show a negative trend, and of 16 species numbers fluctuate too much to calculate a statistically significant trend. Three of the increasing species (Great Cormorant, Spoonbill, Barnacle Goose) show general population increases and/or benefit from improved food availability or habitat changes in the Wadden Sea. For the SheldUck, measures to protect the moulting individuals off the coast of southern Schleswig-Holstein might have contributed to their slight increase. Three (Brent Goose, Wigeon, Mallard) of the 14 decreasing species seem to show general population decreases, due to factors like breedina failure in the Arctic or increased mortality due to cold spells in some winters in the Wadden Sea. Four species (Common Eider, Oystercatcher, Red Knot, Herring Gull) are to varying degrees dependent on bivalves; here, factors like climate change, lack of cold winters and mussel fishery may either solely or in combination cause the decreasing trends. Seven wader species (Avocet, Golden and Grey Plover, Red Knot, Dunlin, Bar-tailed Godwit, Redshank), however, are birds which breed in the arctic, migrate south to tropical Africa and occur in the Wadden Sea in hi-h numbers - thus are largely dependent on the Wadden Sea as their indispensable food source for fast replenishing during their migration. For these species the causes are yet unknown, but may relate to negative effects of food availability/benthos organisms in the Wadden Sea. The monitoring program proved to be successful to describe numbers and trends of waterbirds in the Wadden Sea, using an agreed method to count, compile and analyse the data. This way it fulfills the obligations of international directives and provides the basis to further analyse the causes of population trends and to formulate and implement adequate
Keywords: Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Common Eider; Sea Ducks - General

Abundance and energy requirements of eiders (Somateria spp.) suggest high predation pressure on macrobenthic fauna in a key wintering habitat in SW Greenland - Blicher, M. E.; Rasmussen, L. M.; Sejr, M. K.; Merkel, F. R.; Rysgaard, S. (Polar Biology, 2011)
Times Cited: 1 Blicher, Martin Emil Rasmussen, Lars Maltha Sejr, Mikael Kristian Merkel, Flemming Ravn Rysgaard, Soren Sejr, Mikael /J-5459-2013; Merkel, Flemming/J-7409-2013 1
Keywords: Nonbreeding Seasons; King Eider; Trophic Interactions; somateria spectabilis; Common eider; somateria mollissima

Factors Affecting Selection of Brood-rearing Habitat by Common Eiders (Somateria mollissima) in the Bay of Fundy, New Brunswick, Canada - Blinn, Brenda M.; Diamond, Antony W.; Hamilton, Diana J. (Waterbirds, 2008)
This study quantifies the relative importance of factors affecting selection of brood-rearing areas by Common Eiders (Somateria mollissima) according to duckling age. A total of 1,431 h of observation was conducted from June-August On the New Brunswick mainland in 2000 and on Grand Manan Island in 2001. The number of breeding pairs of Great Black-backed Gulls (Larus matinus) on colonies near study sites appeared to be a better predictor of duckling abundance in sites than the number of Common Eider nests on those colonies. Neither degree of exposure of site nor availability of rockweed (Ascophyllum nodosum) explained variations in duckling abundance. However, sites with a gradual slope, which offer increased surface-feeding area, supported 43-85% more ducklings than sites with a steep slope. Rockweed-harvested sites with a steep slope supported the least number of ducklings on Grand Manan Island, and duckling numbers on the mainland decreased faster in harvested than in control sites. Predation was unimportant, with only nine successful predator attacks on ducklings occurring. Of those, Bald Eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) were responsible for six duckling losses. However, Common Eiders may have avoided Herring Gulls (L. argentatus) in duckling-feeding sites, possibly to avoid klepto-parasitism on eiders by gulls. Human disturbance was also a minor factor. Received 17 September 2007, accepted 3 July 2008.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Habitat

King Eider Somateria-Spectabilis Nesting in Association with Long-Tailed Skua Stercorarius-Longicaudus - Blomqvist, S.; Elander, M. (Arctic, 1988)
In High Arctic Northeast Greenland King Eiders (Somateria spectabilis) were found nesting in association with solitarily breeding Long-tailed Skuas (Stercorarius longicaudus). The association is demonstrated using spatial statistics analyses and timing of clutch initiations. Long-tailed Skuas' nests were evenly spaced in the 6.1 km2 census area, whereas nine out of ten King Eiders nests were located close to five different nests of Long-tailed Skua. It is suggested that the association may be a state of commensalism.
Keywords: Breeding Season; King Eider; Somateria spectabilis

Multi-scale habitat selection affects offspring survival in a precocial species - Bloom, P. M.; Clark, R. G.; Howerter, D. W.; Armstrong, L. M. (Oecologia, 2013)
Times Cited: 0 Bloom, P. M. Clark, R. G. Howerter, D. W. Armstrong, L. M. 0
Keywords: Breeding Season; Melanitta fusca; Survival; white-winged Scoter; habitat; productivity

Automatic multi-capture nest box trap for cavity-nesting ducks - Blums, Peter; Shaiffer, Charles W.; Fredrickson, Leigh H. (Wildlife Society Bulletin, 2000)
Understanding behavioral and population dynamics of local populations requires information on nonbreeding females as well as alternative breeding strategies such as brood parasitism. To address these issues we developed a new automatic multi-capture nest box trap and captured 165 female hooded mergansers (Lophodytes cucullatus) and wood ducks (Aix sponsa) during 199 trap days in one nesting season at a Missouri study site. The average success for a single trap was 0.8 female/trap/day (x=0.2-1.6 females in different time periods and locations). As many as 21 female wood ducks and 12 hooded mergansers were trapped at one site. Multiple captures (2-6 females/check) were often recorded. The most important components of the trap are the swinging false floor, entrance baffle, and counterbalance. The false floor swings downward as soon as a bird settles on it, and returns to the horizontal position after the bird drops into the collection box. Multi-capture nest box traps have several advantages, including automatic operation, ease of setting and operation, minimal need to be checked (only once a day), minimum disturbance to the breeding population, and, most importantly, ability to capture more than one bird daily. These traps can be easily modified (scaled down) to capture smaller cavity-nesting birds.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Techniques; Hooded Merganser; Lophodytes cucullatus

Accumulation in and effects of lead and cadmium on waterfowl and passerines in northern Idaho - Blus, Lawrence J.; Henny, Charles J.; Hoffman, David J.; Grove, Robert A. (Environmental Pollution, 1995)
Waterfowl and passerines in northern Idaho in 1987 had high levels of lead in their blood and tissues that originated primarily from mining and smelting activities. Four Canada geese (Branta canadensis) and one common goldeneye (Bucephala clangula) found dead contained 8 to 38 mu-g/g (wet mass) of lead in their livers. These levels exceed the lower lethal limit of 5 mu-g/g in experimental birds. Two of the Canada geese (one each from the contaminated and reference areas) died with ingested lead shotgun pellets (shot) in their gizzards, whereas the other three birds from the contaminated area contained no ingested shot and evidently died from ingesting environmental lead in sediment or biota. Lead burdens in most American robins (Turdus migratorius) and mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) were high, whereas those in tree swallows (Tachycineta bicolor) were slightly elevated. Lead accumulated to potentially hazardous levels in blood and tissues of some nestling robins (maxima of 0.87 mu-g/g in blood and 5.6 mu-g/g in liver) and mallards (maxima of 10.2 mu-g/g in blood and 2.8 mu-g/g in liver). In mallards, lead levels and associated physiological characteristics of blood were significantly different in juveniles (HY) versus adults (AHY). Activity of delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (ALAD) was about 87 to 95% lower than values for control birds in experimental studies. Activity of ALAD was significantly inversely correlated with blood lead levels. Cadmium was detected in kidneys of most birds, but even the maximum concentration of 7.5 mu-g/g in an AHY mallard was below known harmful levels.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Bucephala clangula; Common Goldeneye; Contaminants

Avian Cholera Causes Marine Bird Mortality in the Bering Sea of Alaska - Bodenstein, B.; Beckmen, K.; Sheffield, G.; Kuletz, K.; Van Hemert, C.; Berlowski, B.; Shearn-Bochsler, V. (Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 2015)
The first known avian cholera outbreak among wild birds in Alaska occurred during November 2013. Liver, intestinal, and splenic necrosis consistent with avian cholera was noted, and Pasteurella multocida serotype 1 was isolated from liver and lung or spleen in Crested Auklets (Aethia cristatella), Thick-billed Murres (Uria lomvia), Common Eider (Somateria mollissima), Northern Fulmars (Fulmarus glacialis), and gulls (Larus spp.).
Bodenstein, Barbara Beckmen, Kimberlee Sheffield, Gay Kuletz, Kathy Van Hemert, Caroline Berlowski, Brenda Shearn-Bochsler, Valerie
Keywords: Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Disease; Nonbreeding season

Distribution paths of endocrine disrupting phenolic compounds in waterbirds (Mergus merganser, Alca torda, Clangula hyemalis) from the Southern Baltic - Bodziach, K.; Staniszewska, M.; Falkowska, L.; Nehring, I.; Ozarowska, A.; Zaniewicz, G.; Meissner, W. (SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT, 2021)
This study determined the distribution of phenol derivatives in the organisms of waterbirds and the factors influencing their bioaccumulation and affinity to specific tissues. Concentrations of bisphenol A (BPA), 4-tert-octylphenol (4-t-OP) and 4-nonylphenol (4-NP) were determined in the brains, subcutaneous fat, kidneys, livers and pectoral muscles of goosanders Mergus merganser (GO), long-tailed ducks Clangula hyemalis (LO) and razorbills Alca torda (RA). The birds came from the winter by-catch (2014-2016) in the Southern Baltic. Different distribution routes of individual phenol derivatives in the birds were established, most likely due to their ability to bind to proteins and/or dissolve in lipids. BPA and 4-NP accumulated most in the muscles (BPA <2.0-223.0 ng.g(-1) dw, 4-NP 26.0-476.4 ng.g(-1) dw), livers (BPA <2.0-318.2 ng.g(-1) dw, 4-NP 60.7-525.8 ng.g(-1) dw), and kidneys (BPA <2.0-836.1 ng.g(-1) dw, 4-NP 29.3-469.2 ng.g(-1) dw), while 4-t-OP was stored mainly in the brains (2.6-341.1 ng.g(-1) dw), subcutaneous fat (0.7-173.7 ng.g(-1) dw) and livers (<0.5-698.8 ng.g(-1) dw). The liver was the only organ where all compounds showed a positive correlation with each other and alkylphenols were also positively correlated with each other in tissues with high fat content (brains and subcutaneous fat), and negatively in muscles. Despite the different trophic levels of birds, the concentrations of phenol derivatives in the tissues between individual species inmost cases did not differ significantly. However, between the species on a similar trophic level, the higher biomagnification coefficient was calculated for LO feeding on benthos, and the lower for RA feeding on pelagic fish (p < 0.05). The good condition of birds, resulting in large intestinal fat stores, promoted on the one hand the penetration of phenol derivatives from the intestine to the liver, and on the other hand their accumulation in subcutaneous fat, thereby protecting the brain. (C) 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 9 Total Times Cited: 9 Cited Reference Count: 101
Keywords: 4-NONYLPHENOL; ALKYLPHENOL ETHOXYLATES; Bisphenol A and alkylphenols; BISPHENOL-A; Brain; ENVIRONMENTAL FATE; HALIAEETUS-ALBICILLA; Kidneys; Liver; MERCURY; Muscles; NONYLPHENOL; ORGANOCHLORINE CONTAMINANTS; OXIDATIVE STRESS; SEABIRDS LARUS; Subcutaneous fat

Gastrointestinal and respiratory exposure of water birds to endocrine disrupting phenolic compounds - Bodziach, K.; Staniszewska, M.; Falkowska, L.; Nehring, I.; Ozarowska, A.; Zaniewicz, G.; Meissner, W. (SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT, 2021)
Aquatic birds found at the top of the trophic chain are exposed to xenobiotics present both in food and inhaled air. The aim of this study was to indicate and assess the routes and levels of exposure of aquatic birds to bisphenol A (BPA), 4-tert-octylphenol (4-t-OP) and 4-nonylphenol (4-NP). The birds constituting the study material (Clangula hyemalis, Alca torda, Mergus merganser) originated from by-catches (winter 2014-2016) in the Southern Baltic. The studies show that the exposure of birds to phenol derivatives is determined by the specifics of a compound, the habitat area, trophic level and food consumed. BPA was characterized by the highest intestinal concentrations in all birds (6.6-1176.2 ng.g(-1) dw). Higher concentrations of 4 -t-OP were determined in the lungs of birds from the eastern part of the Southern Baltic (9.1-135.7 ng.g(-1) dw) and in the intestines of birds from the western part (<0.5-191.4 ng.g(-1) dw). In the case of 4-NP, higher concentrations were found in the intestines of carnivorous species (64.9-524.5 ng.g(-1) dw), and the lungs of benthos-eating species (39.4-399.7 ng. g(-1) dw). The intestines that were most burdened with 4-NP were those of birds from the highest trophic level. Correlations between the concentrations of phenol derivatives in the blood and the intestines and lungs indicated that birds are exposed to the penetration of phenol derivatives through the digestive and respiratory tracts. BPA and 4-NP were characterized by the highest concentrations in the intestines and lungs, whereas 4-t-OP in blood (3.2-39.2 ng.cm(-3)), which may indicate the largest endocrine potential of this compound in birds. Significant differences in phenol derivatives concentrations in the intestines and lungs of birds from the western and eastern part of the Southern Baltic, shows that these tissues can be useful for assessing the contamination of the environment with EDCs. (C) 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 14 Total Times Cited: 14 Cited Reference Count: 105
Keywords: ALKYLPHENOL ETHOXYLATES; Bisphenol A and alkylphenols; ENVIRONMENTAL FATE; ORGANOCHLORINE CONTAMINANTS; CLANGULA-HYEMALIS; Fish- and benthos-eating birds; Intestines and lungs as indicators; LARUS-ARGENTATUS; LONG-TAILED DUCKS; RANA-PIPIENS TADPOLES; Southern Baltic Sea; STABLE-ISOTOPES; SZCZECIN LAGOON; XENOESTROGENS BISPHENOL-A

Elimination of endocrine disrupting phenolic compounds via feathers and claws in seabirds moulting in the Baltic and Russian Arctic - Bodziach, K.; Staniszewska, M.; Nehring, I.; Ozarowska, A.; Zaniewicz, G.; Meissner, W. (SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT, 2022)
This paper investigates the effectiveness of phenol derivatives removal from bird organisms via claws and remiges, and performs a preliminary assessment of the usefulness of these epidermal products for environmental biomonitoring and estimating bird exposure levels. Concentrations of bisphenol A (BPA) and alkylphenols: 4-tert-octylphenol (4-t-OP) and 4-nonylphenol (4-NP) were determined in claws and remiges of long-tailed ducks Clangula hyemalis and razorbills Alca torda, obtained during a by-catch in the winter period (2014-2016) in the Southern Baltic region. For razorbills, the Baltic is a permanent habitat, while long-tailed ducks are migratory and stay in the Southern Baltic only during the non-breeding season. Their remiges are replaced in the Arctic seas of Siberia. The removal of phenol derivatives, depending on the compound and the epidermal product, ranges from 12 % to 34 %. Among these compounds, in both bird species, the highest degree of elimination was observed for 4-NP in remiges (<0.1-656.0 ng.g-1 dw) as well as claws (<0.1-338.6 ng.g-1 dw). On the other hand, the least removed compound in both the long-tailed duck and the razorbill was 4-t-OP. The removal of phenol derivatives from claws in both bird species was at the same level. However, 4-NP concentrations were found to be statistically significantly higher in razorbill remiges compared to those of the long-tailed duck (p < 0.05). Comparison of concentrations in the remiges of the long-tailed duck and the razorbill, moulted in two different environments with different levels of pollution and distances from sources, indicated that the Baltic Sea is approximately 3 times more polluted with 4-NP than the marine areas of the Russian Arctic. This demonstrates the potential for the use of 4-NP and remiges as indicators of environmental pollution with phenol derivatives.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 0 Total Times Cited: 0 Cited Reference Count: 101
Keywords: Birds; Long-tailed duck; ALKYLPHENOL ETHOXYLATES; Bisphenol A and alkylphenols; BISPHENOL-A; OXIDATIVE STRESS; LARUS-ARGENTATUS; ACCUMULATION; Biomonitoring; BIOMONITORING TOOL; BIRD FEATHERS; Elimination; HEAVY-METAL; MERCURY CONTENT; Razorbill; TRACE-ELEMENTS

Characterization of mussel beds with residual oil and the risk to foraging wildlife 4 years after the Exxon valdez oil spill - Boehm, Paul D.; Mankiewicz, Paul J.; Hartung, Rolf; Neff, Jerry M.; Page, David S.; Gilfillan, Edward S.; O'Reilly, James E.; Parker, Keith R. (Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 1996)
The grounding of the Exxon Valdez on March 24, 1989, released about 41 million L of crude oil into the waters of Prince William Sound, Alaska, USA, and oiled about 16% of the Prince William Sound shoreline to various degrees. Although winter storms, cleanups, and natural biodegradation have removed the majority of the oil on the shorelines, some residual oil still remains trapped in sediments immediately below mussel beds. This oil was protected from wave action by the dense covering of mussels. Field surveys found that mussels in such beds constituted less than 3% of the mussels available for foraging in two areas that had been extensively oiled in 1989. Levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in these mussels were also measured. Mean PAH concentrations in mussel tissues ranged between 20 and 4,000 ng/g dry weight and in sediments between 20 and 26,000 ng/g dry weight. Assuming that the species considered most at risk (i.e., harlequin ducks, black oystercatchers, and sea otters) consumed the mussel proportion of their diets exclusively from such beds (at either the median or 95th percentile of mussel tissue PAH concentration), the estimated PAH dosage they would receive was one to three orders of magnitude below doses known to cause sublethal effects in surrogate species. Considering the low frequency of mussel beds with residual oil, the patchy distribution of remaining weathered oil residues, and the relatively low PAH concentrations in the mussels, the risk of quantifiable injury at the level of an individual bird or otter, or at the population level, is minimal. Furthermore, based on a review of the mussel PAH data in Prince William Sound, the risk to wildlife has been minimal since 1990, 1 year after the spill.
Keywords: Sea Ducks - General; Nonbreeding Seasons; Harlequin duck; Histrionicus histrionicus; Contaminants

Distribution and conservation of the Harlequin Duck, Histrionicus histrionicus, in Greenland - Boertmann, David (Canadian Field-Naturalist, 2003)
The breeding range of the Harlequin Duck (Histrionicus histrionicus) in Greenland includes West Greenland to as far north as 72degree 30degree N and a few sites in East Greenland. The breeding population is guessed at a few thousand pairs. During winter Harlequin Ducks occur along the West Greenland coast between Maniitsoq and Nanortalik. The size of the winter population is unknown. As Canadian males, which have moulted in Southwest Greenland, also winter there, perhaps accompanied by females and juveniles, the numbers may be considerable. The peak period for clutch initiation seems to be mid- to late June. There is no immediate conservation concern for the small breeding population of Harlequin Ducks in Greenland. However, there is a risk from marine oil spills along coasts where congregations of non-breeding Harlequin Ducks from both Greenland and eastern Canada occur.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Harlequin duck; Histrionicus histrionicus

Harlequin Ducks in Greenland - Boertmann, David (Waterbirds, 2008)
Information on breeding and wintering Harlequin Ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus) in Greenland is very limited, and no firm estimates of breeding and wintering numbers are available. However, it is assumed that only a few thousand pairs breed in Greenland. Numbers of molting males are estimated at 5,000 to 10,000 birds. They comprise both Greenland and eastern Canadian breeders: their proportions are unknown, but the latter may verb, well constitute a significant part. If true, Greenland has a significant responsibility for the well being of the eastern Canadian breeding Population. Presently there are no immediate threats to the Harlequin Duck population in Greenland. Hunting (illegal) has only negligible effects and habitat destruction is extremely limited. However, oil spills from transport of oil and increased offshore oil exploration constitute a potentially serious threat to molting and wintering birds from the breeding populations in Greenland and in eastern Canada.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Nonbreeding Seasons; Harlequin duck; Histrionicus histrionicus

The significance of Southwest Greenland as winter quarters for seabirds - Boertmann, David; Lyngs, Peter; Merkel, Flemming Ravn; Mosbech, Anders (Bird Conservation International, 2004)
The coastal and offshore waters of Southwest Greenland are internationally important winter quarters for seabirds. We crudely estimate a minimum Of 3.5 million seabirds using the region in winter, mainly from Arctic Canada, Greenland and Svalbard, with smaller numbers also from Alaska, Iceland, mainland Norway and Russia. The most numerous species are Common Eider Somateria mollissima, King Eider S. spectabilis, Brunnich's Guillemot Uria lomvia and Little Auk Alle alle. The most immediate threat to the seabirds in Southwest Greenland is hunting, and current levels of usage of the Greenland breeding populations of Brunnich's Guillemot and Common Eider are considered unsustainable. Conservation measures are required for these populations.
Keywords: Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Common Eider; Sea Ducks - General; Nonbreeding Seasons; King Eider

Molting Harlequin Ducks in Greenland - Boertmann, David; Mosbech, Anders (Waterbirds, 2002)
An aerial survey of post-breeding molting Harlequin Ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus) was carried out in late July 1999 along the southern half of the West Greenland coast. About 3,500 birds were located, which at this time of the year almost exclusively are males. Based on this observation a total of 5,000-10,000 Harlequin Duck males were estimated to molt in West Greenland. About 98% of the surveyed birds were found in the southern half of the study area. This distribution pattern may be linked to the presence of Atlantic Canadian males, which probably account for an appreciable proportion of the molting males in Greenland.
Keywords: Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Nonbreeding Seasons; Harlequin duck; Histrionicus histrionicus; Molt

The importance of Southwest Greenland for wintering seabirds - Boertmann, David; Mosbech, Anders; Merkel, Flemming Ravn (British Birds, 2006)
The coastal and offshore waters of Southwest Greenland are internationally important winter quarters for seabirds. Estimates of the total number of wintering seabirds are in the region of 3.5-5.5 million individuals (not including an unknown but probably extremely large number of Little Auks Alle alle). These seabirds originate mainly from Arctic Canada, Greenland and Svalbard, but also, to a lesser extent, from Alaska, Iceland, mainland Norway and Russia. The most numerous species are Common Eider Somateria mollissima, King Eider S. spectabilis, Brunnich's Guillemot Uria Iomvia and Little Auk. Some key areas have been designated as Important Bird Areas (IBAs) by BirdLife International, and recent data indicate that more areas qualify as IBAs. The most immediate threat to the seabirds in Southwest Greenland is hunting, and current harvest levels of the Greenland breeding populations of Brunnich's Guillemot and Common Eider are considered unsustainable. Bird hunting is prohibited in spring and summer; however, there are no sanctuary areas in Southwest Greenland, and a degree of spatial regulation of winter hunting is urgently required.
Keywords: Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Sea Ducks - General

Mercury in Sea Birds - Bogan, J. A.; Bourne, W. R. P. (Marine Pollution Bulletin, 1973)
Keywords: Sea Ducks - General; Contaminants

Salt gland function in the common eider duck (Somateria mollissima) - Bokenes, L.; Mercer, J. B. (Journal of Comparative Physiology B Biochemical Systemic and Environmental Physiology, 1995)
The function of the supra-orbital salt gland was studied in the common elder duck (Somateria mollissima). The maximum salt-secreting capacity was determined in (1) wild ducks which had been living in a marine environment, (2) ducks reared in captivity on fresh water, and (3) ducks from group 2 adapted to salt water. The maximum secreting capacity was found by infusing a solution of NaCl (1000 mosmol cntdot kg-1) at increasing rates, from 0.691 to 1.671 mosmol cntdot min-1. Freshwater-adapted ducks secreted at a maximum rate of 0.785 mosmol cntdot min-1 (1500 mosmol cntdot kg-1). Adapted to salt water they increased their capacity, and the best duck secreted at a rate of 1215 mosmol cntdot min-1 (1600 mosmol cntdot kg-1). The best wild duck secreted at a rate of 1516 mosmol cntdot min-1. Ducks in group 3 were used to examine the response to a hyperosmotic or an isoosmotic infusion. The amount of salt (NaCl) given per unit time was the same. Given a hyperosmotic solution their salt glands secreted at a high rate: 30 min after the infusion had stopped the ducks had excreted 94% of the sodium infused, 92.9% via the salt gland. Given an isoosmotic solution they secreted at a rate about half the infusion rate: 30 min after cessation of infusion they had excreted 73% of the sodium, 42.9% via the salt gland and the rest by the kidneys.
Keywords: Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Physiology

Human disturbance and nesting success of Common Eiders: Interaction between visitors and gulls - Bolduc, Francois; Guillemette, Magella (Biological Conservation, 2003)
Common Eider colonies often are subjected to human visitors, such as down collectors, recreationists and researchers. However, the effects of frequency and timing of disturbance, and the abundance of nearby avian predators on eider nesting success have been studied only partly. We used three experimental treatments and six eider colonies over 3 years (1993-1995) to test the effects of these factors on eider nesting success, while controlling results for associated gull nest density. Treatments consisted of (1) high frequency visits (once every 3 days) starting early in the incubation period (HFE), (2) low frequency visits (once every 15 days) starting early in the incubation period (LFE), and (3) high frequency visits starting late in the incubation period (HFL). Analysis of covariance indicated that both disturbance treatments and associated gull nest density had a significant effect on eider nesting success probability. Nesting success probabilities were similar for eiders under HFE and LFE treatments (means=0.317+-1.66 (SE) and 0.434+-0.172 respectively), indicating that changes in frequency of visits had little impact on nesting success. In contrast, timing of visits had a major influence on nesting success, as the HFL treatment resulted in a significant higher nesting success probability (mean=0.981+-0.191) than the HFE treatment. Most nest failures occurred after the first visit in all treatments, although the impact of the first visit was lowest in the HFL treatment. Researchers and wildlife managers should visit eider colonies as late as possible, and avoid visiting colonies associated with high densities of eider egg predators.
Keywords: Conservation; Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Productivity

Incubation constancy and mass loss in the Common Eider Somateria mollissima - Bolduc, Francois; Guillemette, Magella (Ibis, 2003)
Keywords: Behavior; Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Energetics and Nutrition

Nesting success of common eiders Somateria mollissima as influenced by nest-site and female characteristics in the Gulf of the St. Lawrence - Bolduc, Francois; Guillemette, Magella; Titman, Rodger D. (Wildlife Biology, 2005)
In the common eider Somateria mollissima as well as in many other bird species, nesting success has been associated with female reproductive characteristics and predator accessibility to the nest site. In this study, we tested the following predictions on nesting common eiders: 1) female and nest-site characteristics are correlated within a colony, where those with the highest ranked reproductive traits nest where the environment provides best protection, 2) females nesting on forested islands generally exhibit better reproductive traits than females nesting on open islets (hereafter habitats) because the former provide the best nest protection, and consequently, 3) colonies located on forested islands have higher nesting success than those on open islets. During the summers of 1995 and 1996, we recorded nesting success at 270 eider nests on two forested islands and four open islets. Simultaneously, we measured several variables describing nest (nest concealment, vegetation height, distance to shore and density of associated nesting gulls) and female (laying date and clutch size) characteristics. Using factor analysis to relate nest-site and female characteristics, we found a correlation between factor scores within four of the six colonies monitored. This correlation indicated that females with largest clutch size and early laying were associated with nest sites of low concealment that were close to shore. However, female score did not differ with habitat. Nesting success did not differ between habitats when controlled for female and nest scores, but was related to female score, and marginally to nest-site score. Because nesting success was principally related to female characteristics rather than to nest site characteristics, we suggest that eiders rely on nest attendance rather than on nest concealment to protect their nests. Nesting close to shore may shorten incubation recesses and improve hatchling survival when leaving the nest.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Productivity; Habitat

Common Goldeneye breeding in the eastern Canadian boreal forest: Factors affecting productivity estimates - Bolduc, Francois; Lapointe, Stephane; Gagnon, Benoit (Waterbirds, 2008)
We conducted multiple Common Goldeneye (Bucephala clangula) aerial surveys between I May and 31 July 2004 and 2005 on the Peribonka River, where a new hydroelectric reservoir will be created in 2007. We also conducted single pair and brood surveys on randomly chosen 5 x 5-km plots on the River drainage basin. Objectives were to assess the validity of the impact assessment surveys of 2002, examine the variation in pair and brood numbers, and determine recruitment and habitat characteristics related to productivity. During both years, the number of indicated breeding pairs (IBPs) declined steadily through May, whereas the social index (paired males/lone males) remained stable, declining only when few IBPs were located. However, backdated number of paired and lone males from observed broods suggested that the number of pairs remained maximal and constant during a three-week period centered on the fourth week of May in 2004 and the second week of May in 2005. IBP density (IBPs/10 km of shoreline) was 1.40 on the River and 0.64 in its drainage basin on average in 2005 (no surveys in 2004). When compared to results of the Black Duck Joint Venture (BDJV) surveys, IBP density was higher on the River by 0.69 IBPs in 2002, whereas densities in the two areas differed only by 0.07-0.29 in 2004 and 2005. No difference in brood density was perceived among survey sections and years. Recruitment rate was 0.15 in 2002, but increased to 0.57-0.67 in 2005 and 2004. Variables related to wetland area and distance to wetlands explained most variability in IBP and brood locations. We believe that timing of surveys and weather were the primary factors that affected difference in productivity estimates between 2002 and the 2004-2005 period.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Bucephala clangula; Common Goldeneye; Productivity

Estimating Winter Sex Ratios for Buffleheads Bucephala-Albeola - Bolen, E. G.; Chapman, B. R. (Southwestern Naturalist, 1981)
A method to better estimate the winter sex ratios of buffleheads (B. albeola) is proposed that accounts for the similar plumages of juvenile birds in the population. The field sex ratios for buffleheads wintering on the Laguna Madre [southern coast of Texas, USA] averaged 54.6% males but was 69.5% males when corrected.
Keywords: Nonbreeding Seasons; Techniques; Bucephala albeola; Bufflehead

Runting of ducklings associated with Cochlosoma anatis infection - Bollinger, Trent K.; Barker, Ian K. (Avian Diseases, 1996)
Ducklings, especially common goldeneye (Bucephala clangula), experiencing poor weight gain and delayed development were reported from a waterfowl park during June and July of 1990. Runting was first noticed between days 5 and 10 post-hatch in the "brooder" building, and although ducklings appeared active and were feeding, they developed at a slower rate than other members of their clutch. Many ultimately died of emaciation and gram-negative bacterial septicemia. Necropsies of affected ducklings revealed large numbers of the intestinal flagellate Cochlosoma anatis, in both the small and the large intestine; however, autolysis impaired histological interpretation in many cases. Inoculation of 1-day-old Muscovy ducklings with feces containing large numbers of C. anatis resulted in poor weight gain and delayed tail-feather development compared with uninoculated control ducklings. Weight gain improved after treatment with metronidazole. Cochlosoma anatis is associated with the runting syndrome observed in ducklings at the waterfowl park.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Bucephala clangula; Common Goldeneye; Disease

Mercury concentrations in seabird tissues from Machias Seal Island, New Brunswick, Canada - Bond, Alexander L.; Diamond, Antony W. (Science of the Total Environment, 2009)
Mercury is a pervasive environmental contaminant, the anthropogenic portion of which is increasing globally, and in northeastern North America in particular. Seabirds frequently are used as indicators of the marine environment, including mercury contamination. We analysed paired samples for total mercury (Hg) concentrations in feathers and blood from adult and chick, albumen, and lipid-free yolk of seven seabirds breeding on Machias Seal Island, New Brunswick, Canada - Arctic Tern (Sterna paradisaea), Atlantic Puffin (Fratercula arctica), Common Eider (Somateria mollissima), Common Murre (Uria aalge), Common Tern (Sterna hirundo), Leach's Storm-petrel (Oceanodroma leucorhoa). and Razorbill (Alca torda). We also used stable-isotope ratios of carbon (delta C-13), and nitrogen (delta N-15) to evaluate the relationship between carbon source and trophic position and mercury. We found high Hg concentrations across tissue types in Leach's Storm-petrels. and Razorbills, with lower concentrations in other species. the lowest being in Common Eiders. Storm-petrels prey on mesopelagic fish that accumulate mercury, and Razorbills feed on larger, older fish that bioaccumulate heavy metals. Biomagnification of Hg, or the increase in Hg concentration with trophic position as measured by delta N-15, was significant and greater in albumen than other tissues, whereas in other tissues, delta N-15 explained little of the overall variation in Hg concentration. Hg concentrations in egg components are higher on Machias Seal island than other sites globally and in the Gulf of Maine region, but only for some species. Further detailed investigations are required to determine the cause of this trend. (C) 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Common Eider; Contaminants; Somateria mollissima

Daytime spring migrations of Scoters (Melanitta spp.) in the Bay of Fundy - Bond, Alexander L.; Hicklin, P. W.; Evans, M. (Waterbirds, 2007)
Each spring, Black Scorers (Melanitta nigra), Surf Scoters; (M. perspicillata) and White-winged Scoters (M. fusca), pass through the Bay of Fundy in daytime on their northward migration to the sub-arctic breeding grounds. Their migrations along the Fundy coast were monitored from the Point Lepreau Bird Observatory at Point Lepreau, New Brunswick, from 1996 to 2004. Black Scoters migrated first (peak migration day: 13-17 April), followed by Surfs (23-25 April) and White-wings (22-28 April) which migrated together, although White-wings persisted over a longer period. Based on their rates of passage, we estimated the relative proportions of the wintering eastern North American populations of scoters, assumed to be of breeding age, which migrated by Point Lepreau each spring. We determined that 6-18% and 28-37% of the North American breeding populations of Surf Scoters and Black Scoters, respectively, utilized this northward migration route annually. The low numbers of White-wings (0.4-0.6%) suggested that larger numbers of this species employed a different migration route in spring or migrated at night. This observatory offers an exceptional facility for monitoring this group of sea ducks, over time.
Keywords: Melanitta fusca; Nonbreeding Seasons; White-winged Scoter; Melanitta perspicillata; Surf Scoter; Migration; Black Scoter; Melanitta nigra

Bill entanglement in subcutaneously-anchored radio transmitters on Harlequin Ducks - Bond, Jeanine; Esler, Daniel (Wilson Journal of Ornithology, 2008)
We report two incidences of Harlequin Ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus) entangling their bills in subcutaneously-attached anchor transmitters. We suggest caution should be exercised when using these transmitters.
Keywords: Harlequin duck; Histrionicus histrionicus; Techniques

Nutrient acquisition by female Harlequin Ducks prior to spring migration and reproduction: evidence for body mass optimization - Bond, Jeanine C.; Esler, Daniel (Canadian Journal of Zoology, 2006)
We analysed variation in body mass of adult female Harlequin Ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus (L., 1758)) on coastal wintering sites in southern British Columbia, Canada, to investigate nutrient acquisition prior to migration and reproduction. On average, female mass increased by 7% from late winter to premigration; however, the chronology of mass gain varied depending on prey type. Females feeding on superabundant roe from spawning Pacific herring (Clupea pallasii Valenciennes, 1847) became considerably heavier than they had been before the herring spawning period (March) and appeared to be heavier than females eating marine invertebrates such as crabs, limpets, and snails during the herring spawning period. By mid-April, prior to migration, females at all sites had similar body masses, with birds at sites without spawn gaining mass and those at sites with spawn maintaining their earlier mass gain. Stable isotope analyses confirmed that birds at these different sites consumed very different diets. These results suggest that female Harlequin Ducks target an optimal premigratory body mass, regardless of whether they have access to a superabundant food source; this body mass is presumably shaped by the costs and benefits of nutrient storage for migration and reproduction.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Nonbreeding Seasons; Harlequin duck; Histrionicus histrionicus; Energetics and Nutrition; Trophic Interactions

Isotopic evidence for sources of nutrients allocated to clutch formation by harlequin ducks - Bond, Jeanine C.; Esler, Daniel; Hobson, Keith A. (Condor, 2007)
Waterfowl employ a broad array of strategies for acquiring the energy and nutrients needed for egg formation, ranging from storage of endogenous reserves prior to arrival on breeding areas to complete reliance on exogenous food sources available at breeding sites. We used stable isotope analyses (delta C-13 and delta N-15) to quantify the relative nutrient inputs to Harlequin Duck (Histrionicus histrionicus) eggs and, therefore, to identify the strategy of nutrient acquisition and allocation used by females to meet the demands of egg production. Marine-derived endogenous nutrients are isotopically more enriched than freshwater dietary nutrients for Harlequin Ducks that migrate between marine wintering grounds and terrestrial breeding grounds. There was little evidence that endogenous reserves stored on marine wintering areas were allocated to clutch formation. Therefore, Harlequin Ducks relied on food available in streams on breeding grounds for egg formation, and reserves stored on marine areas were likely used during other energetically and nutritionally demanding periods.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Harlequin duck; Histrionicus histrionicus; Energetics and Nutrition

Breeding propensity of female harlequin ducks - Bond, Jeanine C.; Esler, Daniel; Williams, Tony D. (Journal of Wildlife Management, 2008)
Breeding propensity, the proportion of sexually mature females that initiate egg production, can be an important demographic trait when considering reproductive performance and, subsequently, population dynamics in birds. We measured egg production using yolk precursor (vitellogenin andvery-low-density lipoprotein) analyses and we measured nesting using radiotelemetry to quantify breeding propensity of adult female harlequin ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus) in British Columbia, Canada, in 2003 and 2004. Using both methods combined, and accounting for error rates of each, we estimated that breeding propensity of adult females that migrated to breeding streams was 92%. These data suggest that, despite speculation that harlequin ducks have low breeding propensity, almost all adult females on our study site were not constrained in their ability to produce eggs and that influences on reproductive performance at later stages likely have much stronger effects on population dynamics.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Harlequin duck; Histrionicus histrionicus; Productivity; Physiology; Techniques

Variation in Breeding Season Survival of Female Harlequin Ducks - Bond, Jeanine C.; Iverson, Samuel A.; Maccallum, N. Beth; Smith, Cyndi M.; Bruner, Howard J.; Esler, Daniel (Journal of Wildlife Management, 2009)
Quantifying sources of variation in demographic rates can provide insight into processes underlying population dynamics and subsequently direct wildlife conservation. In the context of avian life history, understanding patterns of variation in survival rates of breeding females is particularly relevant because this cohort often has a disproportionately large effect on population dynamics. We estimated survival probability for 144 adult female harlequin ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus) that we marked with radiotransmitters and tracked at 4 breeding areas in western North America. Model selection results indicated both regional and temporal variation in survival rates, with most mortality attributed to predation. Cumulative survival probability (+/-SE) during the 100-day study period was lower at 2 sites in the Rocky Mountains of Alberta, Canada (AB1 and AB2: 0.75 +/- 0.11) than in the Coast Mountains of British Columbia, Canada (BC: 0.88 +/- 0.08) or the Cascade Mountains of Oregon, USA (OR: 0.89 +/- 0.08). Survival also was lower during incubation than nest-initiation or brood-rearing stages at all 4 study areas. In comparison to other annual cycle stages and locations, harlequin duck mortality rates were highest on the breeding grounds, suggesting that management actions designed to reduce mortality during breeding would achieve meaningful population-level benefits. (JOURNAL OF WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT 73(6): 965-972; 2009)
Keywords: Breeding Season; Harlequin duck; Histrionicus histrionicus; Population Dynamics; Survival

Limitations of far infrared thermal imaging in locating birds - Boonstra, R.; Eadie, J. M.; Krebs, C. J.; Boutin, S. (Journal of Field Ornithology, 1995)
The utility of far infrared (FIR) thermal imaging devices to detect and census birds in the field was examined. A Thermovision 210 was used to survey individuals and/or nests of Great-horned Owls (Bubo virginianus), Pileated Woodpeckers (Dryocopus pileatus), Northern Flickers (Colaptes auratus), Barrow's Goldeneyes (Bucephala islandica), Buffleheads (Bucephala albeola), Mallards (Anas platyrhynchos), Green-winged Teal (Anas crecca), Lapland Longspurs (Calcarius lapponicus) and Pectoral Sandpipers (Erolia melanotos). Thermal imaging was successful in determining activity at nests of all four cavity-nesting species and in finding nests of Arctic tundra birds if their approximate location was known. FIR thermal imaging was not useful, however, in detecting the active, open nests of Mallards or Green-winged Teal, nor was it useful in locating resting waterfowl or Great-horned Owls. It was successful at locating Arctic tundra birds. These differences are largely attributable to variation among species in the insulative property of nests or feathers. It is concluded that FIR imaging will be of limited utility in censusing most avian populations, although it may provide a useful, abeit expensive tool, to assess nest occupancy of cavity- or burrow-nesting birds, or to determine the activity of birds in open habitats.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Techniques; Bucephala albeola; Bufflehead; Barrow's Goldeneye; Bucephala islandica

Use of ratio estimators to estimate the size of common eider populations in winter - Bordage, Daniel; Plante, Nathalie; Bourget, Andre; Paradis, Sylvain (Journal of Wildlife Management, 1998)
Surveys of common eiders (Somateria mollissima) are often conducted in winter because eiders tend to congregate in small discrete areas during this period. Evaluations of population size are usually based on visual estimates, the reliability of which is difficult to assess. In winter 1989, we tested a method of surveying eiders in the Mingan Archipelago and Anticosti Island region in Quebec. The survey consisted of 2 consecutive overflights of the study area at high and low altitude where photographs were taken and visual estimates were recorded. We estimated the size of the population using a 3-step process. First, we estimated the number of adult males using a ratio estimator that combined high-altitude photo counts and visual estimates; the former was considered an accurate count. The ratio of females and immatures to adult males was then estimated from photos taken from low altitude. Subsequently, a capture-recapture model was used to estimate the number of eiders in small flocks. The proposed method produced estimates with an acceptable level of precision: 77,627 eiders (CV = 13%) on 2 February and 92,247 eiders (CV = 21%) on 28 February. This precision suggests that the method can be useful in monitoring common eider populations in winter, thus facilitating the management of this species. The proposed methodology is unusual in field biology because sampling cannot be controlled; thus, the estimation is relying on a model instead of a predefined sampling design.
Keywords: Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Common Eider; Nonbreeding Seasons; Somateria mollissima; Techniques

Black scoter (Melanitta nigra) - Bordage, Daniel; Savard, Jean-Pierre L. (Birds of North America, 1995)
Keywords: Breeding Season; Nonbreeding Seasons; Black Scoter; Melanitta nigra

Black Scoter (Melanitta americana) - Bordage, Daniel and Jean-Pierre L. Savard (The Birds of North America, 2011)
Keywords: Black Scoter; Melanitta americana

The gizzard worm, Amidostomum acutum (Lundahl, 1848) Seurat, 1918 in common eiders, (Somateria mollissima L.) in the Netherlands - Borgsteede, F. H. M. (Helminthologia (Bratislava), 2005)
A study was made on the prevalence of Amidostomum acutum in the gizzard of the common eider (Somateria mollissima L.) in the Netherlands. The investigated birds were found dead along the Dutch coast in the winter of 2001/2002. From the dead birds collected at two localities, the North Sea coast near the Hondsbossche Zeewering and the Wadden Sea coast of the isle Texel, 50 ciders were selected. These 50 birds consisted of ten adult males, ten adult females, 15 juvenile males and 15 juvenile females. All birds were infected with A. acutum. The number of worms varied from four to 826. There were no significant differences in worm numbers in birds from both localities. Adult birds had significantly more worms (av. 150) than juveniles (48). Adult males had significantly more worms (av. 202) than adult females (98). These differences were found in both localities. The possible role of A. acutum in the mass mortality among the ciders is discussed.
Keywords: Common Eider; Nonbreeding Seasons; Somateria mollissima; Parasites

The gastrointestinal helminth fauna of the eider duck (Somateria mollissima L.) in the Netherlands - Borgsteede, F. H. M.; Okulewicz, A.; Zoun, P. E. F.; Okulewicz, J. (Helminthologia (Bratislava), 2005)
The gastrointestinal helminth fauna of 25 eider ducks (Somateria mollissima L.) in the Netherlands has been described and number of worms counted or estimated. For the most common species maximum worm numbers are given. Five nematode species were found: Amidostomum acutum (max. intensity 1500). Paractiaria formosensis. Streptocara crassicauda, Tetrameres fissispina and Capillaria nyrocinarum (max. intensity 1700). Trematodes were represcrited by 12 species: Cotylurus cormutus, Catatropis verrucosa, Notocotylus attenuatus, Cryptocotyle concavum (max. intensity > 10.000), Psilotrema simillimum (max. intensity > 10.000), Himasthla militaris, Gymnophallus somateriae, G. rostratus, Lacunovermis. macomae, Maritrema gratiosum, Microphallus longicaecum and M. somateriae. The total number of gymnophallid and microphallid digeneans exceded 100.000 in some birds. Other digeneans, not identified at the species level, belonged to the genera Diplostomum, Paramonomum and Levinseniella. Cyclophyllid cestodes (mainly Hymenolepididae) were present in high numbers (max. intensity > 4000), but mostly in the immature stage. One Ligula intestinalis could be identified. Acanthocephalan infections with high numbers (max. intensity 4000) of Profilicollis botulus were very common.
Keywords: Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Parasites

Energy constraints on incubating common eiders in the Canadian Arctic (East Bay, Southampton Island, Nunavut) - Bottitta, Grace E. (Arctic, 1999)
Keywords: Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Energetics and Nutrition

A pressure-sensitive wireless device for continuously monitoring avian nest attendance - Bottitta, Grace E.; Gilchrist, H. Grant; Kift, A.; Meredith, M. G. (Wildlife Society Bulletin, 2002)
Studies of avian incubation patterns may be affected by a researcher's need to visit and disrupt incubating birds. To overcome this problem, we developed a Remote Incubation Monitoring System (RIMS) by modifying an existing home-security system. Camouflaged, pressure-sensitive switches placed in nests of the common eider (Somateria mollissima) transmitted data wirelessly to receivers so that nests did not have to be revisited to retrieve data. Data from receivers were then sent through a cable to a control panel located outside the nesting colony (approximately 2,000 nesting females) to be downloaded. RIMS devices in active nests instantaneously detected the movement of 38 females on or off nests in 1999. We compared data generated from RIMS devices (time of day, number and length of recess) to data from behavioral observations of a sample of females and found the results highly correlated (r=0.99, n=29, P<0.001). The system was not affected by severe weather and provided instantaneous and continuous monitoring of nest-attendance patterns without disturbing incubating females. Behavioral research requiring multiple nest visits by observers could benefit from using RIMS devices for monitoring incubation, particularly among colonial species sensitive to disturbance.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Techniques

Effects of experimental manipulation of incubation length on behavior and body mass of Common Eiders in the Canadian arctic - Bottitta, Grace E.; Nol, Erica; Gilchrist, H. Grant (Waterbirds, 2003)
In 1998 and 1999, the costs of experimentally extending incubation among female Common Eiders (Somateria mollissima) were examined in relation to changes in female body mass. Clutches were switched between nests to extend incubation by an average of five days to compare with control clutches. In the four days prior to hatch, females with manipulated clutches incubated less per day, and lost more body mass than control females. The probability of nest failure was similar for control and manipulated females. Manipulated females who lost their clutches to predation or abandonment appeared to have greater body mass than those who hatched their eggs successfully. Manipulated females who were unsuccessful also took more frequent incubation recesses than those who hatched eggs successfully. The probability of return to the colony in the following year did not differ significantly between control (66%) and manipulated females (57%). These results suggest that some female Common Eiders breeding in the arctic can physically increase their incubation effort and decrease their body condition at the end of the breeding season with no major consequences to long-term survival.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Productivity; Survival; Energetics and Nutrition

The effect of migratory shorebirds on the benthic species of three southwestern Atlantic Argentinean estuaries - Botto, F.; Iribarne, O. O.; Martinez, M. M.; Delhey, K.; Carrete, M. (Estuaries, 1998)
Botto, F Iribarne, OO Martinez, MM Delhey, K Carrete, M

Seasonal variation in effects of multiple predators on an intertidal mussel bed: implications for interpretation of manipulative experiments - Boudreau, M. R.; Hamilton, D. J. (Marine Ecology Progress Series, 2012)
Times Cited: 0 Boudreau, Melanie R. Hamilton, Diana J. 0
Keywords: Breeding Season; Nonbreeding Seasons; Trophic Interactions; Common eider; somateria mollissima

Metazoan Parasites of 3 Species of Scoter Anatidae - Bourgeois, C. E.; Threlfall, W. (Canadian Journal of Zoology, 1982)
Examined for metazoan parasites in 1973-1978 were 175 (94 surf, 36 white-winged and 45 black) scoters [Melanitta perspicillata, M. fusca and M. nigra, respectively] obtained from 4 localities (New Brunswick, British Columbia, Labrador and Norway, Canada); 91% (159 birds: 86 surf, 33 white-winged and 40 black scoters) were infected. Approximately 45 spp. of parasites [tremates, nematodes and acanthocephalans; cestodes excluded] were found (36 from the surf, 25 from the white-winged, and 27 from the black), including 39 which were new host records. Quantitative data, including prevalence and intensity of infection, are given for each helminth and host. Comparisons between different ages and sexes are made, and between different host species. Topics such as location within host are discussed for individual species of parasites. Comments are made on the geographical distribution of the parasites found and their life cycles, where known (7 cycle through the marine ecosystem, 7 through freshwater, 4 through either system and one through a dipteran).
Keywords: Melanitta fusca; White-winged Scoter; Melanitta perspicillata; Surf Scoter; Black Scoter; Melanitta nigra; Parasites

Effects of clutch sizes and incubation stage on nest desertion in the female Common Eider Somateria mollissima nesting in the high Arctic - Bourgeon, Sophie; Criscuolo, Francois; Bertile, Fabrice; Raclot, Thierry; Gabrielsen, Geir Wing; Massemin, Sylvie (Polar Biology, 2006)
Keywords: Behavior; Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Productivity

Immunocompetence of female common eiders incubating in the high arctic in relation to clutch size - Bourgeon, Sophie; Criscuolo, Franccois; Le Maho, Yvon; Raclot, Thierry (Alauda, 2005)
Keywords: Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Physiology

Phytohemagglutinin response and immunoglobulin index decrease during incubation fasting in female common eiders - Bourgeon, Sophie; Cruscuolo, Francois; Le Maho, Yvon; Raclot, Thierry (Physiological and Biochemical Zoology, 2006)
To maximize their fitness, long-lived species face trade-offs between survival and reproduction. The cost of reproduction, which is defined as the negative effect of current parental investment on chances of adult survival and future reproduction, may affect immune function, possibly through hormonal changes. In this study, components of acquired immunity and plasma corticosterone levels of female eiders (Somateria mollissima) have been measured throughout the incubation period as a function of clutch size. These precocial birds lay up to six eggs and fast completely during incubation. Birds were sampled early and late in the incubation period, with clutches ranging from one to four eggs. T-cell-mediated immune response and humoral immunity were assessed by phytohemagglutinin (PHA) skin tests (a challenging method) and measurements of serum immunoglobulins (a monitoring method), respectively. During incubation, responses to PHA injection and immunoglobulin index significantly decreased, by about 40% and 25%, respectively. These observed decreases occurred independently of the number of eggs laid by the females. Corticosterone did not vary significantly during incubation, whatever the clutch size. We conclude that female eiders seem to reallocate their resources from immune function to reproductive effort independently of clutch size or corticosterone levels.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Physiology

Proximate and ultimate mechanisms underlying immunosuppression during the incubation fast in female eiders: Roles of triiodothyronine and corticosterone - Bourgeon, Sophie; Le Maho, Yvon; Raclot, Thierry (General and Comparative Endocrinology, 2009)
Available resources being limited, life-history theory predicts that natural selection favours the evolution of physiological mechanisms that ensure their optimal allocation between competing activities. Accordingly, to maximize their selective value, long-lived species face a trade-off between survival and reproduction. Immunity is hypothesized to share limited resources with other physiological functions and this may partly account for the fitness costs of reproduction. However, both ultimate and proximate factors underlying the observed trade-off between reproductive effort and immunocompetence remain poorly documented. Using female common eiders (Somateria mollissima) as a model, it was earlier shown that acquired immunity is negatively affected during the incubation fast, while its activation has a negative impact on females' fitness. The current paper reports data on corticosterone and triiodothyronine manipulations designed to shed more light onto both ultimate and proximate mechanisms involved in the control of immunosuppression in breeding female eiders. It was found that corticosterone is not the main proximate factor responsible for immunosuppression and that the immunosuppressive effects of both hormones may be mediated by their negative effects on body mass. These observations are consistent with the proposed link between the immune system and body fat reserves and, with the resource-limitation hypothesis for stress-induced immunosuppression. However the alternative hypothesis, the immunopathology-avoidance hypothesis cannot be discarded and the two hypotheses are not mutually exclusive in breeding female eiders. (C) 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Physiology

Fasting-induced changes of immunological and stress indicators in breeding female eiders - Bourgeon, Sophie; Martinez, Javier; Criscuolo, Francois; Le Maho, Yvon; Raclot, Thierry (General and Comparative Endocrinology, 2006)
One adaptive significance of immunosuppression during reproduction can be explained by the immunopathology-avoidance hypothesis. This hypothesis states that since heat shock proteins (HSP) are highly conserved proteins found in both pathogen and host, and are expressed at a higher level during reproduction, the risk of autoinummity is then increased, HSP being the target of the host's immune response. Reduced immunocompetence has been attributed to hormonal regulation, in particular by glucocorticoids. The current study aimed at testing the immunopathology-avoidance hypothesis and the implication of corticosterone in incubating fasting common ciders (Somateria mollissima). To this end, we have measured immunological and stress indicators including immunoglobulin (IgY), HSP70, HSP60, and corticosterone levels in breeding females. A multivariate general linear model analysis showed that female body condition, IgY, HSP70, and HSP60 levels were the main variables explaining the model. Females showed a significant decrease by 15% of their IgY index during incubation. Conversely, HSP70 and HSP60 levels significantly increased by 12 and 10%, respectively throughout incubation. Moreover, there was a positive significant relationship between both HSP whereas HSP60 levels were negatively correlated to IgY index. Plasma corticosterone levels showed a tendency to decrease during incubation. We conclude that these findings are consistent with the immunopathology-avoidance hypothesis in breeding ciders. Nevertheless, the long-term reproductive costs and the underlying mechanisms of such an immunosuppression remain to be determined and will require further experiments. (c) 2006 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Physiology

Corticosterone selectively decreases humoral immunity in female eiders during incubation - Bourgeon, Sophie; Raclot, Thierry (Journal of Experimental Biology, 2006)
Immunity is hypothesized to share limited resources with other physiological functions and this may partly account for the fitness costs of reproduction. Previous studies have shown that the acquired immunity of female common eider ducks (Somateria mollissima) is suppressed during their incubation, during which they entirely fast. Corticosterone was proposed to be an underlying physiological mechanism for such immunosuppression. Therefore, the current study aimed to assess the effects of exogenous corticosterone on acquired immunity in captive eiders. To this end, females were implanted with corticosterone pellets at different stages of their incubation fast. We measured total immunoglobulin levels, T-cell-mediated immune response, body mass and corticosterone levels in these females and compared them with those of control females prior to and after manipulation (i.e. corticosterone pellet implantation). To mimic corticosterone effects on body mass, we experimentally extended fasting duration in a group of females termed 'late fasters'. Implanted females had corticosterone levels females. Corticosterone levels in 'late fasters' were similar to those in control females but body mass was 8% lower in the former. The decrease in the immunoglobulin levels of corticosterone implanted females was twice as high as in control females, while the T-cell-mediated immune response was not significantly affected by the treatment. We found a decrease in the T-cell-mediated immune response only in 'late fasters' (by 60%), while the immunoglobulin level was not lower in this group than in corticosterone implanted or control females. Our study shows that in incubating eiders, exogenous corticosterone only decreased humoral immunity. We suggest that the immunosuppressive effect of corticosterone could be mediated through its effects on body reserves. Further experiments are required to determine the relationship between body condition and immune system in fasting birds.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Physiology

Triiodothyronine suppresses humoral immunity but not T-cell-mediated immune response in incubating female eiders (Somateria mollissima) - Bourgeon, Sophie; Raclot, Thierry (General and Comparative Endocrinology, 2007)
Immunity is believed to share limited resources with other physiological functions and this may partly account for the fitness costs of reproduction. Previous studies have shown that the acquired immunity of female common eiders (Somateria mollissima) is suppressed during the incubation fast. To save energy, triiodothyronine (T-3) is adaptively decreased during fasting in most bird species, despite T-3 levels are maintained throughout incubation in female eiders. However, the relationship between thyroid hormones and the immune system is not fully understood. The current study aimed to determine the endocrine mechanisms that underlie immunosuppression in incubating female eiders. To this end we assessed the effects of exogenous T-3 on both components of the acquired immune system in 42 free-ranging incubating birds. Half of the females were implanted with T-3 pellets, while the other half sham implanted served as control. We measured variations in the immunoglobulin index, the T-cell-mediated immune response, body mass, and plasma parameters in both groups before and after manipulation. T-3 levels in implanted females were four times higher and mass loss was 40% greater than in control females. Implanted females also showed an 18% decrease in the immunoglobulin index, while the T-cell-mediated immune response was not significantly affected by the treatment. Finally, the treatment did not induce any significant changes in corticosterone levels. Our study shows that exogenous T-3 decreased only one component of the acquired immune system. We suggest that the immunosuppressive effect of T-3 could be mediated by its effects on body fat reserves. Further experiments are required to determine: (1) the relationship between adiposity and immune function, (2) the adaptive significance of immunosuppression during incubation in eiders. (c) 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Physiology

Innate immunity, assessed by plasma NO measurements, is not suppressed during the incubation fast in eiders - Bourgeon, Sophie; Raclot, Thierry; Le Maho, Yvon; Ricquier, Daniel; Criscuolo, Francois (Developmental & Comparative Immunology, 2007)
Immunity is hypothesized to share limited resources with other physiological functions and may mediate life history trade-offs, for example between reproduction and survival. However, vertebrate immune defense is a complex system that consists of three components. To date, no study has assessed all of these components for the same animal model and within a given situation. Previous studies have determined that the acquired immunity of common ciders (Somateria mollissima) is suppressed during incubation. The present paper aims to assess the innate immune response in fasting ciders in relation to their initial body condition. Innate immunity was assessed by measuring plasma nitric oxide (NO) levels, prior to and after injection of lipopolysaccharides (LPS), a method which is easily applicable to many wild animals. Body condition index and corticosterone levels were subsequently determined as indicators of body condition and stress level prior to LPS injection. The innate immune response in ciders did not vary significantly throughout the incubation period. The innate immune response of ciders did not vary significantly in relation to their initial body condition but decreased significantly when corticosterone levels increased. However, NO levels after LPS injection were significantly and positively related to initial body condition, while there was a significant negative relationship with plasma corticosterone levels. Our study suggests that female ciders preserve an effective innate immune response during incubation and this response might be partially determined by the initial body condition. (c) 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Physiology

Relation of Eiders and Gulls Nesting in Mixed Colonies in Penobscot Bay Maine - Bourget, A. A. (Auk, 1973)
Keywords: Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima

Distribution, diet and dive behavior of barrow's and common goldeneyes during spring and autumn in the St. Lawrence estuary - Bourget, Dominic; Savard, Jean-Pierre L.; Guillemette, Magella (Waterbirds, 2007)
Barrow's (Bucephala islandica) and Common (B. clangula) goldeneyes winter in large numbers in the St. Lawrence estuary and little is known of their distribution and diet. The objective of the study was to characterize how these two similar species, co-existed in the St. Lawrence estuary during the non-breeding season. Their local distribution, diet, and dive efficiency were compared. There was little overlap in habitat use by both goldeneyes. Their distribution was not correlated in the autumn (r = 0.04) but was in the spring (0.68). Autumn and spring distributions were more correlated in Common Goldeneyes (r = 0.82) than in Barrow's Goldeneyes (r = 0.49). Both species moved to the north shore of the estuary during January and February 1999 as south shore intertidal areas froze. Barrow's Goldeneyes foraged in larger flocks than Common Goldeneyes ((x) over bar = 20.3 vs 9.8 birds) and flocks were larger in autumn than spring. Both species fed on amphipods but differed in their use of gastropods (Barrow's Goldeneye) and polychaetes (Common Goldeneye). Dive duration was similar in both species but varied between areas. Pause duration was shorter in Common Goldeneyes than in Barrow's Goldeneyes but was not affected by area. Dive efficiency was higher in Common Goldeneyes than Barrow's Goldeneyes and varied between areas. The predominance of polychaetes in the diet of Common Goldeneyes and of amphipods in the diet of Barrow's Goldeneyes had not been highlighted before. These species provide a good example of niche differentiation between closely related species.
Keywords: Behavior; Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Nonbreeding Seasons; Bucephala clangula; Common Goldeneye; Trophic Interactions; Habitat; Barrow's Goldeneye; Bucephala islandica

Breeding Biology of the Hooded Merganser in Southwestern Quebec Canada Including Interactions with Common Goldeneyes and Wood Ducks - Bouvier, J. M. (Canadian Field-Naturalist, 1974)
Keywords: Breeding Season; Bucephala clangula; Common Goldeneye; Hooded Merganser; Lophodytes cucullatus

Remaining suitable areas for the critically endangered Brazilian Merganser (Mergus octosetaceus; Aves, Anseriformes) are threatened by hydroelectric power plantsk - Bovo, A. A. A.; Ferraz, Kmpmd; Ribeiro, F.; Lins, L. V.; Barbosa, M. D.; Previdente, F. H.; Disconzi, G. M. S.; Sebaio, F.; Antas, P. D. Z.; Guaraldo, A. D.; Resende, A.; Lagos, A. R.; et al. (PERSPECTIVES IN ECOLOGY AND CONSERVATION, 2021)
The critically endangered Brazilian Merganser Mergus octosetaceus is one of the rarest waterfowls in the world. Only three isolated populations remain in the Brazilian Cerrado, totaling less than 250 individuals. We evaluated the potential influence of small hydroelectric plants (SHPs) and Protected Areas (PAs) on the species' conservation. We identified suitable areas by using recent presence records and environmental predictors, and overlapped it with the species dispersion zone and the SHP impact zone. Suitable areas for the species are limited to 4% of the geographic space (142,899 km2). Within the dispersion zone, we found 36 planned SHPs, which can impact 4.1% of the suitable area and 17.2% of the suitable area inside PAs. Our results expose the critical situation of the Brazilian Merganser, with few isolated suitable areas, high potential impacts for the three known populations, and a high proportion of suitable areas out of PAs. We highlight the need of considering SHPs impacts on the Brazilian Merganser in environmental impact assessment studies to reduce them. Furthermore, we appointed areas for search of new populations, and emphasize how urgent the implementation of effective conservation actions aiming to protect the remaining suitable habitats for the Brazilian Merganser is. (C) 2021 Published by Elsevier Editora Ltda. on behalf of Associ??o Brasileira de Ciencia Ecologica e Conservaco.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 2 Total Times Cited: 2 Cited Reference Count: 65
Keywords: Maxent; ATLANTIC FOREST; AUC; CONSERVATION; Dam; DEGRADATION; Mergini; MINAS-GERAIS; NATIONAL-PARK; REGION; SERRA-DA-CANASTRA; Small hydroelectric plant; Species distribution model

A description of Meiogymnophallus jamesoni sp. nov. (Trematoda: Gymnophallidae) from the intestine of the common scoter, Melanitta nigra L - Bowers, E. A. (Ann Mag Natur Hist, 1965)
Keywords: Black Scoter; Melanitta nigra; Parasites

Status and trends of North American sea ducks: Reinforcing the need for better monitoring - Bowman, T. D., E. D. Silverman, S. G. Gilliland, and J. B. Leirness (Studies in Avian Biology, 2015)
The value of existing waterfowl survey data for assessing the status and trends of North American sea duck populations is limited due to short time series, insufficient geographic coverage, improper timing, and species identification problems. Despite these shortcomings, contemporary data provide insights into the status of several sea duck populations. In this chapter, we synthesize available information on population status and trends in abundance for sea ducks and recommend efforts that could improve our ability to monitor sea duck populations. The Alaska breeding population of Spectacled Eiders is currently stable (Arctic Coastal Plain) or increasing (Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta) in numbers. Steller’s Eiders (Polysticta stelleri) wintering in Alaska have declined since the early 1990s. Spectacled and Steller’s Eiders remain below historic levels and are listed as threatened in the United States. In western North America, King Eiders (Somateria spectabilis) declined substantially between the mid-1970s and mid-1990s; recent data suggest regional differences, but a stable population overall. There is insufficient information on trend for King Eiders in eastern North America. An assessment of trends for Pacific Common Eiders (S. mollissima v-nigra) is based on limited information, but data suggest that this subspecies declined substantially in northern parts of its range in the 1980s to the early 2000s. Recent regional trend estimates note declines in central arctic Canada and northwestern Alaska, and stable to increasing numbers in other parts of Alaska. Population trends for American Common Eiders (S. dresseri) are variable range-wide, with apparent increases in northern parts of their range and decreases in southern parts. Trends for Hudson Bay (S. m. sedentaria) and Northern subspecies (S. m. borealis) of Common Eiders are uncertain. The population trajectories of the three scoter species (Melanitta spp.) are also not well understood, but available data suggest that, as a group, scoters decreased from the 1980s to the early 2000s, with greater declines noted in the northern boreal forest and northern prairies than in Alaska, and with overall increases since about 2004. Black Scoters on Pacific breeding areas have declined significantly since the mid-1970s, but have increased in number in the last decade. There is no measurable trend for eastern Black Scoters. The limited data for Long-tailed Ducks (Clangula hyemalis) suggest long-term declines in the parts of their range that are surveyed, with more stable numbers in recent years. Buffleheads (Bucephala albeola), goldeneyes (B. clangula and B. islandica) and mergansers (Mergus spp. and Lophodytes cucullatus) have increased, although lack of differentiation among species of both goldeneyes and mergansers prohibits reliable species-specific evaluations. Numbers of Harlequin Ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus) along the Atlantic coast are increasing, while the Pacific trend is unknown. Data suggest that, for the 22 populations of North America sea ducks currently recognized as distinct or allopatric, 11 populations appear to be stable or have increased in abundance over the last 10–20 years, and two populations are apparently declining. Data are insufficient to determine status for the remaining nine populations. Reliable information about population status and trends requires surveys designed with specific consideration of sea duck distribution and phenology. We recommend increasing observer training, incorporating detection adjustments, and using aerial photography to improve the accuracy of species identification and abundance estimation. Management agencies in the United States and Canada must devote greater resources to monitoring sea ducks if they wish to better inform harvest management, focus habitat conservation efforts on areas of greatest importance to sea ducks, and effectively evaluate their management actions.
Keywords: & Trends; Abundance; Distribution

Strong evidence for two disjunct populations of Black Scoters Melanitta americana in North America - Bowman, T. D.; Gilliland, S. G.; Schamber, J. L.; Flint, P. L.; Esler, D.; Boyd, W. S.; Rosenberg, D. H.; Savard, J. P. L.; Perry, M. C.; Osenkowski, J. E. (WILDFOWL, 2021)
Black Scoters Melanitta americana were marked with satellite transmitters on Atlantic and Pacific coasts of North America to examine continental-scale population delineation. Scoters marked on the different coasts did not overlap at any stage of the annual cycle, suggesting that birds in the two regions could be monitored and managed as separate populations: 1) an Atlantic population, which winters along the Atlantic coast and Great Lakes and breeds from northeast continental Canada westward to the Northwest Territories, and 2) a Pacific population, which winters along the Pacific coasts of Alaska, British Columbia and the Pacific northwest states, and breeds in western Alaska. Range maps for Black Scoter could reflect these distributions revealed by satellite telemetry. Our data provide new information on the distribution of Black Scoters in North America, which can be used to improve the of future surveys.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 3 Total Times Cited: 3 Cited Reference Count: 36
Keywords: surveys; satellite telemetry; Mergini; ECOLOGY; HABITAT USE; NIGRA; population delineation; sea duck

Arctic temperatures and the long-tailed ducks shot in eastern North America - Boyd, Hugh (Wildlife Biology, 1996)
The numbers of adult females and first-winter long-tailed ducks Clangula hyemalis shot in eastern North America between 1972 and 1994 have fallen, though the kill of adult males shows no trend. Most of these ducks are likely to have originated in the Arctic Tundra climatic region of Canada. Although summer and autumn temperatures in that region have shown no trends since 1972, their annual variations can account for 19-53% of the variations in the breeding success of eastern-wintering long-tailed ducks, as reflected by the numbers of first-winter birds in the kill.
Keywords: Nonbreeding Seasons; Clangula hyemalis; Long-tailed Duck; Productivity

Conservation of North American sea ducks - Boyd, W. S., T. D. Bowman, J.-P. L. Savard, and R. D. Dickson (Studies in Avian Biology, 2015)
Several species of North American sea ducks have experienced population declines in the last century and, in most cases, the causes remain unknown. Of primary concern for conservation is the fact that research on the tribe Mergini has lagged far behind other waterfowl groups, leading to a poor understanding of the key factors that may limit sea duck populations. We lack basic information on the demography and ecology of most species, including patterns of distribution and abundance, habitat associations, demographic rates, and population structure. Moreover, sea ducks face a wide range of potential threats, from large-scale environmental drivers such as climate change that may have long-lasting effects on many species to specific resource development projects that may affect some species at local geographic areas over short time periods. Further efforts are required to assess the individual and cumulative impacts of these threats to sea ducks before we can formulate effective conservation strategies.
Keywords: Conservation

Apparent survival, natal philopatry, and recruitment of Barrow's goldeneyes (Bucephala islandica) in the Cariboo-Chilcotin region of British Columbia, Canada - Boyd, W. S.; Smith, B. D.; Iverson, S. A.; Evans, M. R.; Thompson, J. E.; Schneider, S. (Canadian Journal of Zoology, 2009)
We used capture-resight data to evaluate apparent survival, natal philopatry, and recruitment of Barrow's goldeneyes (Bucephala islandica (Gmelin, 1789)) in British Columbia, Canada. Median ages of first pairing and first breeding for females were 2 years and 3 years, respectively. The Cormack-Jolly-Seber model that best fit our data indicated that apparent survival rates (Phi) differed according to sex, year, and age class at marking. Estimates were similar for after-hatch-year (AHY) females (0.62) and AHY males (0.58), which was consistent with predictions. However, contrary to predictions, apparent survival rates of hatch-year (HY) females (0.68) were similar to those of AHY females and significantly higher than those of HY males (0.35). We interpret this difference as being primarily related to higher dispersal probabilities by HY males. Also evident was a negative correlation between apparent survival rate during the 1st year after capture for HY birds and their subsequent apparent survival rates, which suggests that probability of dispersal increased after these birds reached reproductive maturity and began to compete for breeding territories. We interpret this as evidence for density-dependent control of access to limited resources such as nest cavities.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Dispersal; Population Dynamics; Survival; Barrow's Goldeneye; Bucephala islandica

Wildlife Occupying Potential Wood Duck Tree Nest Sites - Boyer, R. L. (Wilson Bulletin, 1975)
Keywords: Breeding Season; Habitat; Hooded Merganser; Lophodytes cucullatus

Harlequin Ducks in the Canadian Maritime Provinces - Boyne, Andrew W. (Waterbirds, 2008)
Harlequin Ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus) area relatively rare species in the Canadian Maritime Provinces. Recent confirmed breeding records are restricted to northern New Brunswick. Sightings of small numbers of birds during the molting and staging periods occur in all three provinces. It is estimated that New Brunswick supports as many as 200 wintering Harlequin Ducks, and almost 600 winter off the coast of Nova Scotia, although due to the extent of coast and occasional sightings of Harlequin Ducks from previously unknown locations, it is likely that these are minimum estimates, particularly for Nova Scotia. Few trend data are available in the Maritimes, but available information suggests an increase in the last five years. Hunting, both intentional and unintentional, still occurs; hunter education and enforcement to stop the Lake of this species could be worthwhile. Coastal development, including vacation home building and aquaculture sites, are occurring in places where Harlequin Ducks winter. There is a general need to monitor the impacts of these developments on local Harlequin Duck populations.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Nonbreeding Seasons; Harlequin duck; Histrionicus histrionicus

Temporal and spatial abundance of wintering common Eider Somateria mollissima, long-tailed duck Clangula hyemalis, and Common Scoter Melanitta nigra in shallow water areas of the southwestern Baltic Sea - Brager, Stefan; Meissner, Jan; Thiel, Martin (Ornis Fennica, 1995)
More than 76 000 Common Eiders Somateria mollissima, 5000 Long-tailed Ducks Clangula hyemalis, and 5000 Common Scoters Melanitta nigra usually spend the winter in the Baltic Sea of Schleswig-Holstein, FRG. Between November 1986 and April 1992 thirty-one aerial surveys were conducted to document their temporal and spatial abundance in the shallow water areas ( lt 10 m deep). All three species show strong differences in habitat use of offshore shallow waters and coastal shallow waters. Eiders and Long-tailed Ducks leave the offshore shallow waters in the second half of the winter. In contrast, they utilize coastal shallow waters throughout the winter, but especially as staging sites during spring migration. Common Scoters mostly pass through to spend the winter outside the study area; during spring migration they heavily use the offshore shallow waters. Finally the driving factors for the observed distribution patterns are discussed to describe the function of the Baltic Sea of Schleswig-Holstein for seaducks and its relation to other parts of the annual range of seaducks.
Keywords: Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Common Eider; Nonbreeding Seasons; Clangula hyemalis; Long-tailed Duck; Somateria mollissima; Habitat; Black Scoter; Melanitta nigra

Herring Gull Larus-Argentatus Predation on Red-Breasted Merganser Mergus-Serrator Ducklings - Braun, B. M.; Heinz, P. A.; Heinz, G. H. (Wilson Bulletin, 1980)
Keywords: Breeding Season; Trophic Interactions; Mergus serrator; Red-breasted merganser

Comparison of Total Mercury Levels in Relation to Diet and Molt for Nine Species of Marine Birds - Braune, B. M. (Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 1987)
Total mercury (Hg) concentrations were analyzed for tissues of nine species of marine birds from the Quoddy region, New Brunswick, Canada, including cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus), eiders (Somateria mollissima), guillemots (Cepphus grylle), phalaropes (Phalaropus lobatus), gulls (Larus argentatus, L. philadelphia), terns (Sterna hirundo, S. 4paradisaea) and kittiwakes (Rissa tridactyla). There was a progressive decrease in Hg concentration from the innermost to the outermost primary feather in Bonaparte's gulls, herring gulls, black-legged kittiwakes and Arctic terns. Primaries of common terns and black guillemots showed no significant trend. Cormorants, guillemots and eiders, which feed on benthic organisms, and common terns, which feed predominantly on fish, had the highest tissue Hg levels, whereaas birds such as kittiwakes and phalaropes, which consume mainly pelagic invertebrates, had the lowest Hg levels.
Keywords: Common Eider; Contaminants; Somateria mollissima

Regional differences in collagen stable isotope and tissue trace element profiles in populations of long-tailed duck breeding in the Canadian Arctic - Braune, Birgit M.; Hobson, Keith A.; Malone, Brian J. (Science of the Total Environment, 2005)
Adult long-tailed ducks (Clangula hyemalis) were collected from nine locations across their breeding grounds in northern Canada and measurements of stable isotopes of carbon (delta C-13), nitrogen (delta N-15) and sulfur (delta S-34) in bone collagen were used to investigate if relative use of freshwater habitats such as the Great Lakes (with expected depleted stable isotope profiles) compared with coastal marine environments (with expected enriched stable isotope foodweb profiles) could explain tissue trace element profiles. Contrary to expectation, all three stable isotopes did not covary in our sample, suggesting that mechanisms other than simple freshwater vs. marine isotopic gradients were involved among populations. All three stable isotopes varied significantly with collection location and both delta N-15 and delta C-13 values varied significantly between sexes suggesting that males exploit either a different food base or occur in different geographic areas than females for at least part of the year. The delta S-34 data, in particular, suggested that many of the birds breeding in the western Canadian Arctic probably overwinter in the Great Lakes along with many of the birds breeding in Hudson Bay. Males at the majority of collection locations had higher concentrations of hepatic Hg (1.1-8 mu g/g dw), Cu (25-40 mu g/g dw), Se (7.3-27 mu g/g dw) and renal Cd (33-129 mu g/g dw) than females. Concentrations of Hg, Cu and Cd were well below toxicological threshold levels found in the literature. However, hepatic Se concentrations in 64% of the females exceeded 10 mu g/g dw and concentrations in 8% of the birds measured exceeded 33 mu g/g dw suggesting levels of potential concern. Crown Copyright (c) 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Clangula hyemalis; Long-tailed Duck; Contaminants; Population Delineation

Mercury and selenium in livers of waterfowl harvested in northern Canada - Braune, Birgit M.; Malone, Brian J. (Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 2006)
Total mercury and selenium were measured in livers of green-winged teal, northern pintails, buffleheads, king eiders, Barrow's and common goldeneyes, surf and white-winged scoters collected from 12 sites across northern Canada between 1988 and 1994. Hepatic mercury concentrations were < 1.0 mg.kg(-1) ww in 80% of the birds analyzed. Mercury levels did not vary much among species, with green-winged teal, northern pintails, and white-winged scoters, in particular, generally having quite low levels (< 0.5 mg.kg(-1) ww). Northern pintails had the lowest Se concentrations (< 2.5 mg.kg(-1) ww) overall whereas the higher Se concentrations (10-20 mg.kg(-1) ww) were found in the king eiders and scoters. Selenium showed a much greater variation in concentrations, particularly in the king eiders and scoters. Hepatic mercury concentrations found in the waterfowl analyzed in this study were an order of magnitude lower than toxicological threshold levels found in the literature. However, hepatic selenium concentrations in 33% of the females exceeded 3.0 mg.kg(-1) ww and some king eiders as well as some surf and white-winged scoters contained hepatic selenium concentrations > 10 mg.kg(-1) stop ww suggesting levels of potential concern.
Keywords: Sea Ducks - General; Contaminants

Organochlorines and mercury in waterfowl harvested in Canada - Braune, Birgit M.; Malone, Brian J. (Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 2006)
Samples of breast muscle from 32 species of waterfowl collected from 123 sites across Canada were analyzed for chlorobenzenes (CBz), chlordane-related compounds (CHL), hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCH), DDT, mirex, dieldrin, PCBs and mercury. Sigma DDT, Sigma CBz and Sigma PCB were the compounds most frequently found above trace levels. Sigma HCH and Sigma Mirex were detected the least often. Mercury was detected in all of the mergansers, over 50% of dabbling, bay and sea ducks, and in less than 2% of the geese analysed. The highest levels of contaminants were generally found in birds feeding at higher trophic levels such as sea ducks and mergansers. With the exception of a few samples of mergansers and long-tailed ducks from eastern Canada, which contained Sigma PCB concentrations of 1.0 - 2.4 mg kg(-1), Sigma PCB levels were less than 1 mg kg(-1) wet weight. Only one merganser from eastern Canada had a Sigma DDT concentration (2.6 mg kg(-1) ww) which was greater than 1 mg kg(-1) ww. The highest Sigma CHL (0.10 mg kg(-1) ww) was also found in mergansers from eastern Canada. Levels of total mercury in breast muscle were either low (< 1 mg kg(-1) ww) or below detection limits with the exception of a few samples of mergansers from eastern Canada which contained mercury concentrations of 1.0 - 1.5 mg kg(-1) ww. Health Canada determined that the organochlorine and mercury levels found in samples of breast muscle of ducks and geese analysed in this study did not pose a health hazard to human consumers and therefore these waterfowl were safe to eat.
Keywords: Sea Ducks - General; Contaminants

Modelling essential habitat for common scoter (Melanitta nigra) in a disturbed environment - Breen, P.; Clarke, S.; Tully, O. (ESTUARINE COASTAL AND SHELF SCIENCE, 2022)
The realised distribution of species in disturbed environments depends upon the degree to which their optimum habitat has been altered by impacts arising from human pressures. We investigated how pressures such as fishing activity, changes in prey availability and habitat quality affect the distribution of Common Scoter (CS) in the north Irish Sea. CS distribution data were obtained from aerial surveys in the winter of 2018-2019. We developed two generalised additive models using covariate information on depth, seabed shear stress, VMS activity of fishing vessels, AIS data of passenger and cargo vessels, portion of fine sand in the benthos, abundance of deepburrowing bivalves and abundance of surficial bivalves. There was no clear evidence that the fishery, through either disturbance effects nor direct prey competition caused by extraction of razor clams, affected the distribution of CS in the area. However, indirect effects of the fishery, mediated through impacts on abundance and perhaps recruitment of bivalves on CS, could not be ruled out. The absence of a disturbance effect may be due to the small size of vessels in this fleet and their slow fishing speeds. The abundance of surficial bivalves, depth, the portion of fine sand and shear stress at the seabed in the sediments influenced CS distribution. This indicates that the distribution of CS in the area is driven by foraging conditions rather than the presence of fishing vessels.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 0 Total Times Cited: 0 Cited Reference Count: 60
Keywords: VULNERABILITY; CLIMATE-CHANGE; CONSERVATION; Benthic bivalves; BYCATCH; CETACEANS; Common scoter; Disturbance; FISHERIES MANAGEMENT; Fishing; GAMs; Habitat alteration; INVESTIGATOR DISTURBANCE; MARINE PROTECTED AREAS; RISK; SEABIRDS

Responses of autumn-staging ducks and Coot Fulica atra to the Skjern River Valley wetland restoration project - Bregnballe, T.; Clausen, P.; Fox, A. D. (WILDFOWL, 2019)
Following 35 years of drainage and intensive arable tillage, the lower Skjern River in west Jutland, Denmark was re-engineered to a meandering riverbed and natural flooding regime to restore sediment and nutrient retention and reduce sedimentation and eutrophication of Ringkobing Fjord at its efflux. The creation of 22 km(2) of lakes, shallow wetlands and seasonally flooded grassland has attracted large numbers of autumn-staging waterbirds, including peaks of 8,800-19,700 individuals and more than three-quarters of a million bird-days per annum spent there by nine common freshwater duck species during 2002-2016. Over this period, annual numbers of bird-days have declined by 45-68% amongst Mallard Anas platyrhynchos, Eurasian Wigeon Mareca penelope, Northern Pintail.A. acute: and Eurasian Coot Fulica aim, fluctuated without trend for Eurasian Teal A. crecca (hereafter Teal) and Gadwall M strepera and increased by 99-557% amongst Northern Shoveler Spatula clypeata, Common Pochard Ayt* ferina (hereafter Pochard), Tufted Duck A. fuligula and Common Goldeneye Bucephala clangula (hereafter Goldeneye). Despite these changes in species composition, there have been no overall declines in total bird-use of the site during 2002-2016. Regression models showed a positive relationship between annual numbers of bird-days for Teal and the mean autumn water depth (likely a response to the extent of shallow flooded grassland created by high water levels), as did those for the diving ducks (Pochard, 'Rifted Duck and Goldeneye), which benefited from the extent and depth of floodwaters. We lament the lack of environmental monitoring post-restoration on the lower Skjern River, which would have provided better information on how changes in food supply, abundance and accessibility affected the annual numbers of autumn-staging waterbirds at the site. Nevertheless, the site, which was formerly devoid of any waterbirds, has immediately become, and remained, one of Denmark's five most important freshwater wetlands for autumn-staging waterbirds with minimal management intervention, confirming the considerable potential for such restoration schemes.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 3 Total Times Cited: 4 Cited Reference Count: 35
Keywords: ECOLOGY; DABBLING DUCKS; WATER LEVELS

Breeding success and breeding association of short-eared owls Asio flammeus on Griend - Brenninkmeijer, Allix; Stienen, Eric W. M.; Van Tienen, Piet G. M. (Limosa, 1998)
After a series of years (1992, 1994-96) with one single breeding pair of Short-eared Owls Asio flammeus, in 1997, two pairs nested on the island of Griend in the Dutch Wadden Sea. The early pair fledged two chicks. while the late pair had no fledglings. So, as in other years, early pairs had a higher breeding success than late pairs. Pairs were most successful when the hatching period coincided with the spring migration peak of Dunlins Callidris alpina, which in those cases made up more than 50% of the diet of chicks. On Griend, Eiders Somateria mollissima, Mallards Anas platyrhynchos and Common Shelducks Ttadorna tadonia clearly form breeding associations with Short-eared Owls. The density of duck nests in the direct vicinity of nests of Short-eared Owls was about three times as high as in other parts of the dike with the same breeding habitat.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Common Eider; Somateria mollissima; Habitat

Capture Methods for Migrating, Wintering and Molting Sea Ducks - Brodeur, Serge; Mittelhauser, Glen H.; Savard, Jean-Pierre L.; Thomas, Peter W.; Titman, Rodger D.; Comeau, Denis (Waterbirds, 2008)
Sea ducks have been captured with mist nets set across breeding streams and in drive traps at sea during the flightless period, but capture of flying birds on staging and wintering coastal areas presents a challenge. Here, we describe a highly successful technique for capturing Harlequin Ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus) at sea, modified from a mistnet set developed to capture Marbled Murrelets (Brachyramphus marmaratus) at sea. While the original method was passive, decoys were added to attract birds and occasionally birds were driven toward the nets using small boats. The capture technique proved to be safe and effective. Three hundred and seventy-eight birds were captured during 28 d of effort and no birds died in the net,; or during handling. The technique has been further modified to capture molting Harlequin Ducks. The technique and its modified version could be easily used to capture other sea ducks on their staging, wintering and molting areas.
Keywords: Nonbreeding Seasons; Harlequin duck; Histrionicus histrionicus; Techniques; Sea Ducks

Abundance and Movements of Harlequin Ducks Breeding on Rivers of the Gaspe Peninsula, Quebec - Brodeur, Serge; Savard, Jean-Pierre L.; Robert, Michel; Bourget, Andre; Fitzgerald, Guy; Titman, Rodger D. (Waterbirds, 2008)
In 1996, a Study to locate and describe breeding Sites, estimate pair densities and document brood movements of Harlequin Ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus) was conducted oil selected rivers of the Gaspe Peninsula, Quebec. Pair densities oil the Port-Daniel, Sainte-Anne and Madeleine River systems were low: 0.32, 0.10 and 0.06 pairs/km, respectively. Six VHF radiotransmitters were implanted in nesting females oil the Port-Daniel and Sainte-Anne Rivers. Two Successful nests were located oil cliff ledges and one unsuccessful nest was located oil the ground oil all island. These nests represented the first recorded for the eastern North American Harlequin Duck population. Of the marked hens, two successfully hatched ducklings. One was followed for a month until the female was killed by a Great Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus). The brood used a six kill stretch Of the Sainte-Anne River during that period. The other brood was tracked for two months and concentrated its activities along a three kill stretch of the Port-Daniel River. The female was located in coastal waters near Newport oil 24 August 1996. Two of the marked females from the Port-Daniel River and one from the Sainte-Anne River migrated to Bonaventure Island, where they likely molted. A female captured oil the Port-Daniel River was killed by a Red-tailed Hawk (Buteo jamaicencis) before its nesting status was confirmed. A female from the Port-Daniel River was located at the Sally islands, Maine, oil 5 December 1996. The study confirmed the importance of the Gaspe Peninsula Rivers for breeding Harlequin Ducks and the use of adjacent coastal molting sites by postbreeding females. It also established a link with the major Maine wintering area.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Harlequin duck; Histrionicus histrionicus; Dispersal

Harlequin duck Histrionicus histrionicus population structure in eastern Nearctic - Brodeur, Serge; Savard, Jean-Pierre L.; Robert, Michel; Laporte, Pierre; Lamothe, Pierre; Titman, Rodger D.; Marchand, Stephane; Gilliland, Scott; Fitzgerald, Guy (Journal of Avian Biology, 2002)
During May 1996 and April 1997, eight harlequin duck males were captured and fitted with satellite transmitters while migrating along the shores of Forillon National Park, Quebec, Canada. Another 17 males were equipped with satellite transmitters in river systems of eastern Hudson Bay, Ungava Bay and northern Labrador in June 1997 and 1998. Our objectives were to determine relationships between breeding, moulting and wintering areas, and to determine whether distinct population segments existed among harlequin ducks in eastern North America. All birds tracked from Forillon migrated to Labrador. Moulting areas were identified for six birds. Forillon males were followed to the eastern North American major wintering site in Maine. Males captured in northern Quebec and Labrador migrated to moult and winter in south-western Greenland. Our data suggest the presence of two demographically distinct population segments in eastern North America, perhaps originating from the Pleistocene glacial refuge in western Greenland and south of the Laurentide ice sheet in eastern Canada or United States.
Keywords: Breeding Season; Nonbreeding Seasons; Harlequin duck; Histrionicus histrionicus; Population Delineation

Failure Time and Fate of Harlequin Ducks Implanted with Satellite Transmitters - Brodeur, Serge; Savard, Jean-Pierre L.; Robert, Michel; Titman, Rodger D.; Fitzgerald, Guy (Waterbirds, 2008)
The recent use of abdominally-implanted satellite transmitters to track movements of waterfowl is rapidly filling gaps in our understanding of their population structure and affinities. However, premature loss of transmitter signals is of serious concern. Such loss occurred in 21 our of 25 satellite transmitters implanted in Harlequin Ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus) in 1996-4998. The tracking of eight birds captured while migrating along the shores of Forillon National Park, Gaspe Peninsula, Quebec, and the resightings of some of these birds after transmitter failure is detailed. The birds were followed for three to 373 d (mean = 127 d, SD = 82 d) until transmitter signal was lost, but four birds were resighted 493 to 1,474 d after the surgical procedures. These results indicate that premature failure of the transmitter is a common cause of signal loss, even when the battery voltage is adequate at the time of loss. Harlequin Ducks drakes implanted with satellite radios are able to live long after the transmitter has failed.
Keywords: Harlequin duck; Histrionicus histrionicus; Techniques

An in Situ Study on the Distribution Biotransformation and Flux of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Pahs in an Aquatic Food Chain Seston Mytilus-Edulis L. And Somateria-Mollissima L. From the Baltic an Ecotoxicological Perspective - Broman, D.; Naf, C.; Lundbergh, I.; Zebuhr, Y. (Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 1990)
This in situ study is focusing on the distribution, biotransformation and flux of 19 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH19) in the food chain seston-blue mussel (Mytilus edulis L.)-common eider duck (Somateria mollissima L.) as well as the distribution of the gallbladder, liver, adipose tissue and egg of the duck. All samples were collected within the open northern Baltic proper coastal areas. Analyses were carried out by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry with electron impact (GC-MSEI) and negative ion chemical ionization (GC-MSNICI). With a multivariate statistical method (SIMCA) a significant change in the PAH composition through the food chain was found. This change probably depends on an increasing metabolic activity with increasing trophic level, due to a selective biotransformation capacity for different PAHs. Decreasing PAH concentrations with increasing trophic level were found. The PAH concentrations in the different eider duck organs were: gallbladder > adipose tissue .gtoreq. liver. The theoretical inhalation of air-dispersed PAHs was of no significance compared to the exposure from food. The relatively high theoretical PAH flux through the food chain did not result in increasing concentrations with increasing trophic level, which indicates that PAHs are biotransformed quite fast. However, many intermediate metabolites of PAHs have a mutagenic and carcinogenic potential, which makes it important to observe these compounds when assessing ecotoxicological risks.
Keywords: Common Eider; Contaminants; Somateria mollissima

The Goosanderer (Mergus merganser) in Wallonia and Brussels Region: yesterday a scarse winter bird, tomorrow a breeding bird? - Bronne, Louis (Aves)
From the middle of the 20th century -and probably already from the middle of the 19th century-till 1985, Goosanders were present each winter in Wallonia or Brussels Region in very small numbers. Only hard winters sent more birds, mainly on River Meuse.From 1985 onwards the number of wintering Goosanders has considerably increased (see Fig. I and 2). Following the influxes of 1986 and 1987, a wintering habit was born on the takes between the Sambre and the Meuse rivers (Barrages de l'Eau d'Heure, Roly and Virelles). 42% to 60% of Goosanders wintering in Wallonia and Brussels Region stayed in this area in mid January until the next influxes occurred in 1996 and 1997. These influxes sent birds in the areas east of River Meuse and thus created I a new wintering habit on River Ourthe and its tributary River Ambleve. For the first time in Belgium the species became a regular wintering bird in the grayling zone. The areas east of River Meuse (mainly Ourthe and Ambleve rivers) are now the main areas occupied by wintering Goosanders. The little influx of 2003 may also have had an impact as a new area for wintering of Goosanders has been found in the southernmost part of Belgium.The summer observations of Goosanders in Wallonia since 1966 are given (Fig. 4 and 5). They become increasingly frequent and the ratio between males and females appears to be the same as in winter.The breeding range of the Goosander is known to be included between 10 degrees C and 20 degrees C July isotherms. Nevertheless breeding does not occur in parts of the area between these isotherms. This non-breeding area is where Europe is most densely populated (see Fig. 6). We suggest that Goosanders were eliminated by man from this area and give some non-exhaustive clues and proofs that breeding occurred in France in the 16th and 17th centuries. Since Goosander legal!, protection became effective in western European countries, not only wintering populations but also their breeding range are increasing. We cannot exclude that a breeding case would occur soon in Wallonia. Two isolated: breeding cases have already been discovered less than 100 km from the Walloon borders.
Keywords: Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Nonbreeding Seasons; Common merganser; Mergus merganser

Emergence and development of a winter roost of Goosanders (Mergus merganser) the case of Coo (Belgian Ardennes) - Bronne, Louis; Brunin, Christophe (Aves, 2006)
The lake of Coo was created in the early 1970s in an abandoned loop of the river Ambleve as part of an hydroelectric plant. Coo is now used as a winter roost by Goosanders. The often poor visibility conditions and the late arrivals of some of the birds allow only 37 out of the 98 evening counts made to be considered as good condition counts. Out of these, 26 counts were carried out during the winters of 2002-03 and 2003-04. We derived two models (one for the brownheads, one for the drakes) from these data, using a regression based on least squares method. We used winter day number (J and J(2)) and a temperature function (f) as variables. A large number of different temperature functions were tested. In order to select the most appropriate one we defined the "extended standard error of estimate", that takes into account not only the differences between the regression curve and the samples used in the regression but also the differences between the curve and the bad condition counts that are above the curve. As a matter of fact, these counts have a constant feature: they are always underestimated, and should then be under the curve.In the past Goosanders were only short-staying and solitary visitors at Coo. From February, 19th, 1996 groups have been regularly seen on the lake. The recorded numbers of brownheads fit very well the model in all subsequent winters (see Fig. 2). For the drakes, the model provides too high numbers in the winters before 2001-2002 and too low numbers after 2003-2004. That model can be corrected by a multiplicative coefficient (Fig. 7) that can be written as a linear function of year. Fig. 3 shows the corrected model along with the counts.We thus propose an explanation for the emergence and development of the roost. The rigorous, month of February in 1996 forced Goosanders to leave their traditional wintering areas located northeast of Coo. Some birds discovered a new set of sites, including Coo, between which they move during the winter according to local weather conditions. We call this set of sites the "complex of Coo". On the next autumn when they had to "decide" for a wintering area, Goosanders preferred this complex over the one they used before February 1996, possibly because of overcrowding of the later. As the water level of the lake of Coo is constantly varying, it never freezes. Thus temperatures cold enough to force Goosanders to leave the lake for southwestem areas are unlikely to ever occur. Therefore Coo appears as the last remaining site at the end of the complex. This explains why the number of Goosanders only rises with lowering temperature. In the first winter, almost only brownheads (full-grown females and first-year males and females) were present. On the next year, the previous winter first-year males came back and could then be identified as drakes. And so on with new first-year birds joining the complex in similar proportion each year. This can explain the linearly increasing number of drakes (see Fig. 4).We feel confident that this scheme of wintering habit development could be exported to other wintering areas. Unfortunately other Goosander counts in Belgium have so far only been carried out during the day. A look at observations made by day on the graphs is enough to convince oneself of the poor significance of these data.
Keywords: Abundance, Distribution, and Trends; Nonbreeding Seasons; Common merganser; Mergus merganser

Abundance and Habitat Selection of Breeding Scoters (Melanitta spp.) in Ontario's Hudson Bay Lowlands - Brook, R. W.; Abraham, K. F.; Middel, K. R.; Ross, R. K. (CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST, 2012)
Concern about declining populations of sea ducks counted on the wintering grounds prompted a survey of sea ducks on the breeding grounds in the Hudson Bay Lowlands of Ontario in spring 2009. We estimated densities of breeding scoters (Surf Scoter, Melanitta perspicillata, White-winged Scoter, M. fusca, and Black Scoter, M. americana) and found the average estimates of Surf Scoters ((x) over bar = 0.11 indicated pairs/km(2)) and Black Scoters ((x) over bar = 0.16 indicated pairs/km(2)) to be as high as some of the highest reported for North America. We also conducted a habitat association analysis using resource selection functions (RSF) for indicated pairs of all scoter species combined at a scale of 250 m. Breeding pairs of scoters in the Hudson Bay Lowlands appear to have an affinity for smaller wetlands (<= 100 ha) disproportionate to what is available, also avoiding lakes (i.e., wetlands > 100 ha). Pairs were also found in areas with less forest cover and fen area than was available. An estimate of the area under the curve of the receiver operating characteristic suggests that these habitat association models have sonic utility. Once tested and validated with surveys beyond the current study area, these models can be refined and used to predict habitat use by breeding pairs of scoters in the Hudson Bay Lowlands; this information will be particularly useful for population estimation and land use planning.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 3 Total Times Cited: 3 Cited Reference Count: 32
Keywords: habitat selection; Melanitta fusca; White-winged Scoter; Melanitta perspicillata; Surf Scoter; Black Scoter; Melanitta americana; ECOLOGY; density estimate; Hudson Bay Lowland; Hudson Bay Lowlands; MODELS; Ontario; resource selection function

Detecting silent stressors: Trace element effects on nutritional status of declining scoter ducks of Puget Sound, USA - Brooks, M. L.; Lovvorn, J. R.; Behnke, J. H.; Anderson, E. M. (SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT, 2021)
White-winged scoters (Melanitta fusca: WWSC) and surf scoters (M. perspicillata; SUSC) have declined by over 60% in recent decades. Identifying contributing factors from within a mosaic of sublethal, multiple stressors is challenging. In urbanized Puget Sound, Washington, USA where scoters winter, changes in prey availability explained only a portion of local declines, suggesting that other "silent stressors" such as sublethal contaminants might play a role. Past studies of pollutant effects on scoters used Fisherian statistics that often revealed few correlates; however, novel statistical approaches could detect and provide more insights about sublethal impacts. Our objectives were to (1) relate pollutant accumulation to health of the birds, and (2) compare permutational multivariate statistics with traditional approaches in identifying sublethal health effects. We collected scoters from three locations in Puget Sound in December 2005 and March 2006, and measured cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), and selenium (Se) levels in livers and kidneys. To assess impacts of low contaminants levels in tissues on nutritional status (whole-body mass, lipid, and protein; and triglycerides, beta-hydroxybutyrate, and uric acid in blood), we compared statistical methods. Permutational multivariate methods use Monte Carlo techniques to assess how an integrated matrix of physiological responses in each animal respond to contaminants. Univariate regressions revealed very few and inconsistent relationships. In contrast, multivariate models showed that liver Hg and Se explained 25% of the variance in nutritional status of white-winged scoters; and in surf scoters, Cd, Hg, and Se in tissues explained 14 to 27% of nutritional status depending on site. The influence of these factors equals other aspects of habitat such as foraging conditions. Our study indicates that permutational multivariate statistics can be a powerful tool for identifying sublethal contaminant associations that, with non-contaminant stressors, can influence nutritional status and thus, contribute to population dynamics. (C) 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Times Cited in Web of Science Core Collection: 0 Total Times Cited: 0 Cited Reference Count: 103
Keywords: COMMON EIDERS; BODY CONDITION; CONTAMINANT CONCENTRATIONS; DIETARY-CADMIUM; Ecotoxicology; FEMALE LESSER SCAUP; GLUTATHIONE METABOLISM; MELANITTA-PERSPICILLATA; Metals; Multiple stressors; PERMANOVA; SAN-FRANCISCO BAY; Selenium; SURF SCOTERS; Triglyceride; WHITE-WINGED SCOTERS

Blood lead levels of wild Steller's eiders (Polysticta stelleri) and black scoters (Melanitta nigra) in Alaska using a portable blood lead analyzer - Brown, Corrine S.; Luebbert, Joanne; Mulcahy, Daniel; Schamber, Jason; Rosenberg, Daniel H. (Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 2006)
Sea duck populations are declining in Alaska. The reasons for the decline are not known; environmental lead exposure is one suspected cause. Thirty wild Steller's eider ducks (Polysticta stelleri) and 40 wild black scoter ducks (Melanitta nigra) were tested for blood lead levels using a portable blood lead analyzer (LeadCare((R)); ESA, Inc., Chelmsford, Massachusetts 01824, USA). Sixty-seven and one-tenth percent of the sea ducks had undetectable blood lead levels, 30.0% had values indicating normal or background lead exposure, and 2.9% had values indicating lead exposure. None of the birds had values indicating lead toxicity, and no birds demonstrated clinical signs of toxicity. Birds in areas with higher human population density had higher blood lead levels than those in less densely populated areas. This is the first time a portable blood lead analyzer has been utilized with sea ducks in a field setting. Because it provides immediate results, it is valuable as a screening tool for investigators carrying out surgical procedures on birds in the field as well as establishing baseline blood lead data on sea ducks. Lead exposure does occur in wild sea ducks, and the study indicates that additional research is needed in order to determine the role environmental lead plays in declining sea duck populations.
Keywords: Contaminants; Techniques; Black Scoter; Melanitta nigra; Polysticta stelleri; Steller's eider